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.  TOM  MU.-^kJVY 

Dominion  Series  of  Catholic  School  Books. 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


HISTORY. 


"  In  History,  as  in  every  branch  of  mental  culture,  the  first  elementary  school- instruction 
is  not  merely  an  important,  but  an  essential,  condition,  to  a  higher  and  more  scientific  knowl- 
edge. At  first,  indeed,  it  is  merely  a  nomenclature  of  celebrated  personages  and  events— a 
sketch  of  the  great  historical  eras,  divided  according  to  chronological  dates,  or  a  geographical 
plan— which  must  be  impressed  on  the  memory,  and  which  serves  as  a  basis  preparatory  to 
that  more  vivid  and  comprehensive  knowledge  to  be  obtained  in  riper  years." 

Frederick  von  Schlegel. 


MONTREAL : 
JAMES    A.     SADLIER, 

1669    NOTRE    DAME    STREET. 


jFmprimatur, 


^  John,  Cardinal  McCloskey, 

Archbishop  of  New  Yor 


Copyright,  1884,  by  William  H.  Sadlier. 


V/03 


P  R  E  F  ACE 


For  Canadians,  and  for  Catholic  Canadians,  especially,  an  interest  in  jp^en- 
eral  European  liistory  is  both  natural  and  essential.  As  Canadians,  we  belong 
to  a  country  which  is  peopled  by  contingents  from  every  European  nation  ;  by 
ancestry  we  are  all  foreigners  here ;  and  our  interests  in  history  are  as  general 
as  the  mixture  of  blood  in  our  people  is  varied  and  diverse.  As  Catholics,  our 
conception  of  history  cannot  centre  in  the  assumed  superior  importance  of  any 
one  nation  to  all  others,  such  as  a  narrow  patriotism  sometimes  imagines  for 
its  own  kindred  and  race ;  nor  can  our  conception  be  satisfied  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  one  or  two  national  histories  to  which  a  blood  relationship  alone 
might  confine  it. 

History,  for  Catholic  conception,  is  a  history  of  Christian  civilization,  or 
of  the  ancient  civilizations  which  preceded,  as  transformed  and  resurrected  by 
it.  This  history  converges  in  ancient  times  to  that  centre  of  ancient  civiliza- 
tion which  became,  and  has  ever  since  remained,  the  focus  of  the  Christian 
faith.  It  diverges  from  that  centre  to  the  nations  of  later  time  as  they  became 
subject  to  its  influence,  and  have  remained  to  the  present  day,  unconsciously, 
it  may  be  in  some  cases,  controlled  by  it. 

In  oflfering  this  book  for  uses  of  instruction,  the  author  is  supported,  then, 
by  the  sense  that  its  topic  is  one  of  vital  importance ;  but  as  for  the  methods  in 
which  this  topic  shall  be  presented  in  one  short  book,  under  the  limitations  of 
size  which  practical  usefulness  demands,  there,  indeed,  is  a  broad  field  for 
variance  of  opinion.  For  the  art  of  teaching  has  little  to  do  with  the  knowl- 
edge it  conveys.  The  art  of  teaching  is  also  a  science  to  whose  acquisition  a 
lifetime  of  experience,  or  the  bent  of  natural  genius,  must  be  assistant.  A 
good  historian  may  be  a  poor  instructor — may  fail,  and  sometimes  does  fail,  in 
the  preparation  of  a  text-book  on  the  subject.  Practical  usefulness  being,  then, 
the  condition  of  success  and  the  standard  of  judgment,  the  author  takes  the 
liberty  of  noting  the  practical  features  ^.Ahi^ work. 


iY  PREFACE. 

The  typography  makes  use  of  tliree  sizes  of  print.  To  the  large  print  is 
assignee!  the  direct  matter  of  fact  considered  necessary  for  a  general  History 
Primer,  and  recita  ions  confined  to  this  print  will  still  furnish  an  exact  survey 
of  the  subject.  The  medium  print  is  generally  employed  for  explanatory 
matter,  summaries,  descriptions  of  civilizations,  etc.  The  small  print,  not 
intended  for  recitation,  is  devoted  to  details  which  will  give  the  work  addi- 
tional value  for  colleges  and  advanced  classes,  or  to  matter  which  will  make 
the  book  more  interesting  to  the  younger  learner,  and  which  could  not  be 
otherwise  supplied  without  undue  increase  of  size. 

The  Chronologies,  Synchronistic  Tables,  Genealogies,  and  Questions  for 
Review  have  been  given  all  the  space  and  typographical  clearness  which  their 
great  importance  demands. 

A  most  important  feature  is  the  space  devoted  to  Historical  Geography,  in 
connection  with  a  series  of  twenty-three  double-page,  jirogressive,  historical 
maps.  This  subject,  at  once  the  most  neglected  in  historical  instruction  and 
the  most  fundamentally  essential  to  any  exact  conceptions  of  the  Past,  has 
never  hitherto  been  adequately  illustrated  in  text-books  on  general  history, 
and  matter  relating  to  it  has  been  necessarily  excluded  by  absence  of  illustra- 
tion. The  maps  here  in  question  have  been  supplied,  with  kind  approbation 
of  the  Author,  by  the  Publisher  of  Dr.  Robert  H.  Labberton's  Historical 
Atlas. 

This  Atlas  is  undoubtedly  at  once  the  most  useful  and  the  most  comprehen- 
sive of  all  Historical  Atlases  published  for  student  use,  not  excepting  the  valu- 
able works  of  German  origin.  Its  use  of  colors  is  more  forcible  and  decided, 
and  therefore  clearer  in  its  effects  and  contrasts,  than  that  usually  employed. 
Such  colors,  which  would  be  inadvisable  in  geographical  maps,  are  absolutely 
essential  where  the  varying .  boundaries  cf  successive  political  changes  have  to 
be  clearly  represented. 

In  illustrations,  as  in  maps,  the  author  has  to  acknowledge  an  unprece- 
dented liberality  on  the  part  of  the  Publishers.  An  examination  of  the  sub- 
jects chosen  will  show  them  to  be  of  serious  historical  value — engraved  photo- 
graphs of  the  monuments  of  the  Past  in  their  present  condition,  or  direct 
reproductions  of  the  pictures,  medals,  and  engravings  of  older  periods.  The 
portraits  reproduce  authenticated  works  made  in  the  time  of  the  individual 
portrayed. 

The  Table  of  Contents  presents  a  summary  view  of  the  nations  and  periods 
treated,  and  of  the  arrangements  adopted.  This  arrangement  must  be  tested 
by  its  results  in  use  ;  but  it  is  the  first  in  which  a  sequent  view  of  the  epochs 
of  liistory  has  been  presented  without  abandoning  a  treatment  by  nations. 


PREFACE.  Y 

It  is  the  common  opinion  of  teachers  that  history  should  be  taught  by 
nations  rather  than  by  epochs  or  philosophical  divisions,  in  view  of  the  diffi- 
culties w^hich  the  latter  method  causes  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  In  defer- 
ence to  this  opinion  the  author  has  planned  the  book,  but  has  preserved  the 
sequence  of  epochs  in  Book  II.  by  breaking  the  histories  of  the  states  of  West- 
ern and  Central  Continental  Europe  at  1500.  FoUoviring  the  history  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  Germany  comes  first,  and  the  Germanic  epoch  of  the  whole 
of  Europe,  which  succeeded  that  of  the  West-Roman  Empire,  is  thus  pre- 
sented in  proper  sequence.  Leaving  the  history  of  Germany  at  1500  for  that 
of  France  down  to  the  same  time,  the  French  ascendency  over  Europe  in  the 
time  of  the  Crusades  thus  receives  its  proper  place.  Once  more  leaving 
the  history  of  France  at  1500  for  the  Renaissance  civilization  of  Italy,  which 
culminated  at  that  time,  the  sequence  is  still  preserved.  The  history  of  Spain, 
next  taken  up,  is  carried  through  the  epoch  of  Charles  V.,  for  which  the  matter 
relating  to  Germany,  France,  and  Italy  affords  a  solid  basis.  The  Hapsburg 
monarchy  of  Charles  V.  once  more  gives  a  footing  for  the  later  history  of  Ger- 
many, and  that  of  France  is  then  connected  with  a  brief  summary  for  Europe 
in  general  after  the  French  Revolution. 

The  nations  of  Northern  and  Eastern  Europe  lie  in  an  arch  around  those  of 
the  West  and  Centre,  and  are  most  logically  treated  after  those  from  which 
their  culture  is  derived.  Here  the  order  of  development  in  civilization  has 
been  from  west  to  east.  Thus  is  dictated  the  arrangement  of  Book  III.,  which 
places  Ireland  first,  England  second,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  third, 
Russia  fourth,  and  Turkey  last,  as  only  in  the  19th  century  becoming  subject 
to  Europeanizing  influence.  The  arrangement  of  the  Ancient  Nations  in  Book  I. 
also  observes  the  sequence  of  historical  development. 

Thus  much  to  an  indulgent  public,  as  far  as  preface  is  concerned.  To  the 
kind  friends  whose  confidence  inspired  and  made  possible  his  task — the  tribute 
of  the  final  sentence  of  his  work  and  the  warm  well  wishes  of 

THE   AUTHOR. 
MoNTBEAL,  June,  1885, 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/ancientmodernhisOOnewyrich 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


BOOK  I.— ANTIQUITY— EASTERN  NATIONS,  GREECE  AND  ROME. 

PAGES 

EGYPT 3-18 

CHALD^EA  AND   ASSYRIA— MEDIA,  BABYLONIA,  AND   PERSIA 19-24 

THE  PHOENICIANS 25-28 

GREECE 29-72 

ROME 73-116 


BOOK  II.— MODERN  HISTORY— WESTERN  AND  CENTRAL  EUROPE. 

ROMAN   EMPIRE AFTER  THE   CHRISTIAN   ERA 119-139 

GERMANY ...TO  A.  D.  1500 140-173 

FRANCE TO   A.  D.  1500 174-212 

ITALY BEFORE  AND  ABOUT  A.  D.  1500 213-223 

SPAIN BEFORE   AND  AFTER  A.  D.  1500 224-242 

GERMANY AFTER   A.  D.  1500 24S-2G3 

FRANCE AFTER  A.  D.  1500 264-289 

FRENCH   REVOLUTION LATER  CONTINENTAL   EUROPE 290.304 


BOOK  III.— MODERN  HISTORY— NORTHERN  AND  EASTERN   EUROPE. 

IRELAND 307-350 

ENGLAND  (SCOTLAND   INCLUDED) 351-400 

DENMARK,  NORWAY,  AND   SWEDEN 401-410 

RUSSIA   AND   POLAND 411-421 

ARABS  AND  TURKS 422^31 


1 


BOOK    I. 

ANTIQUITY. 


THE  EASTERN  NATIONS  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY- 
GREECE  AND  ROME. 


"The  virtues  of  tlie  Pagans  were  not  sins,  as  Luther  pretended.  They 
were  real  natural  virtues,  which  St.  Augustine  believed  God  had  often  re- 
warded by  great  temporal  blessings."— Thebaud,  The  Church  and  the  Moral 
W<yrU. 


EGYPT. 


MODERN  STUDIES  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HIEROGLYPHICS. 


The  earliest  authentic  records 
of  History,  aside  from  those  of  Holy 
Scripture,  relate  to  Egypt.  In  the  times 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by  whom 
the  Nile  valley  was  successively  subject- 
ed, authors  of  these  nations  described 
the  country  and  related  its  history.  But 
their  accounts  have  been  mainly  sup- 
planted by  studies,  made  in  our  own 
19th  century,  from  the  still  earlier  rec- 
ords of  the  Egyptians  themselves  — 
partly  from  their  ruins,  paintings,  and 
sculptures,  partly  from  the  liieroglyphics 
("  sacred  carvings  ")  carved  on  the  tem- 
ples or  written  on  rolls  of  papyrus. 

These  modern  studies  in  Egyp- 
tian history  have  been  promoted  by 
the  interest  attaching  to  this  country, 
since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in 
1869,  as  the  highway  for  European  com- 
merce with  India.  They  were  first  ex- 
cited by  the  Egyptian  expedition  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  in  1798. 


i^' 

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Obelisk  at  On.* 


*  Showing  a  hieroglyphic  inscription.  On,  or  Heliopolis,  is  in  the  Nile  Delta.  Its  obelisk, 
erected  by  Sesortasen  I„  is  the  oldest  now  standing  in  Egypt  and  earlier  than  B.  c.  2000.  It 
is  of  granite,  and  68  feet  high  in  the  solid  block. 


4  EGYPT. 

Modem  "Egypt  is  a  province  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  but  only 
loosely  connected  with  it.  The  Khedive  is  a  semi-independent 
prince,  rather  controlled  by  European  holders  of  Egyptian  bonds 
and  of  the  shares  in  the  Suez  Canal  than  by  the  Sultan.  The 
native  population  consists  of  Arabs  and  Kopts.  The  Arabs  are 
descendants  of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  of  the  7th  century 
A.  D.  The  Kopts  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as 
their  name  implies,  which  is  a  modified  form  of  the  word  Egypt — (the 
Greek  Aiguptos=iKoptos).  They  have  been  long  oppressed  by  the 
Turks  and  Arabs,  who  profess  Mohammedanism,  while  the  Kopts 
are  Christians.  The  Koptic  Church  resembles  the  Greek  Church, 
though  not  governed  by  it. 

The  Koptic  language  has  been  supplanted  by  the  Arabic, 
and  is  no  longer  spoken  ;  but  as  found  in  the  Missals  and  Bibles 
still  used  by  the  priests,  it  is  the  key  to  the  study  of  the  old  Egyp- 
tian language,  of  which  it  is  the  direct  descendant.  Such  diffi- 
culties as  still  exist  in  deciphering  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  are  not 
so  much  owing  to  difficulty  in  spelhng  them  out,  as  to  the  fact 
that  the  modern  Koptic  has  lost  many  old  Egyptian  words,  and 
has  much  modified  others. 

The  study  of  Koptic  was  not,  however,  taken  up  by  Euro- 
pean men  of  science  until  they  could  spell  out  the  hieroglyphics, 
and  the  first  steps  in  this  direction  date  from  Bonaparte's  campaign 
in  Egypt. 

The  Rosetta  Stone. — There  was  then  found  in  the  Delta 
of  the  Nile  a  slab  of  basalt — now  in  the  British  Museum  in 
London — known  from  the  place  of  discovery  as  the  Rosetta  Stone. 
This  slab  was  covered  with  three  inscriptions — one  in  Greek,  and 
two  in  different  hieroglyphic  styles.  The  Greek  inscription  showed 
that  the  stone  dated  from  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies,  the  Greek 
kings  of  Egypt.  Corresponding  to  the  letters  in  the  Greek  inscrip- 
tion sjxjlling  the  word  Ptolemy  and  other  proper  names,  were  hiero- 
glyphics spelling  the  same  words.  Thus  was  found  the  clue  to  the 
letters  of  the  old  Egyptian  alphabet. 


ANCIENT    HIEROGLYPHICS.  5 

Later  study  of  this  writing  bas  shown  that  it  had  three  stages  :  first,  that 
of  picture  writing  of  the  simplest  kind  (like  that  still  used  by  American  Indians), 
where  the  picture  represents  the  actual  object — for  instance  a  picture  of  a  lion 
to  represent  this  animal.  The  second  stage  used  the  picture  to  signify  a  related 
idea — the  picture  of  a  lion  would  then,  for  instance,  represent  the  idea  of  power. 
The  third  stage  was  the  alphabetic,  in  which  the  picture  signified  the  first 
sound  used  in  naming  it ;  the  picture  of  a  lion  would  then  represent  the  letter 
L,  the  Egyptian  word  for  lion  being  "labo." 

In  process  of  time  the  pictures  of  the  alphabetic  stage  were  more  and  more 
simplified  into  symbolical  and  abbreviated  forms,  on  account  of  the  toil  of 
carving  them,  or  just  as  in  writing  we  may  grow  to  shorten  and  abbreviate  the 
forms  of  our  own  letters.  For  example,  the  picture  of  a  sieve  had  been  used 
to  denote  the  sound  H.     The  sieve  was  finally  denoted  by  a  circle  with  a  single 

line  across  it,  instead  of  many  Clj .     The  Phoenician  merchants  of  the  coast  of 
Syria,  who  borrowed  this  alphabet,  found  it  simpler  to  make  the  form    H  . 

This,  as  adopted   by  the  Greeks,  was  written  ^— |,  the  form  from  which  the 

letter  H  is  taken.     (The  letter  H,  in  Greek  use,  was  subsequently  replaced  by 
a  "breathing"  mark,  or  aspirate  sign.) 

Through  similar  transformation,  all  other  letters  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
were  modified  from  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  transmitted  through  the  Greeks 
to  later  times;  all  known  alphabets  of  Europe  being  modified  Phoenician. 
The  Phoenician  derivation  of  our  alphabet  has  been  always  admitted,  but 
its  Egyptian  origin  is  one  of  the  latest  results  of  historic  study.  The  most  im- 
portant fact  of  Egyptian  history  is  that  we  owe  to  it  the  alphabet  in  which 
our  books  are  written. 

TEMPLE    RUINS   OF   EGYPT. 

"When  modem  travelers  saw  the  wonderful  temple  ruins 
of  Egypt  entirely  covered  with  hieroglyphic  carvings ;  when  they 
saw  the  mummy  cases  (coffins)  and  papyrus  rolls  found  in  them, 
covered  with  hieroglyphic  writing ;  it  was  natural  for  them  to  sup- 
pose that  mysterious  secrets  would  be  discovered,  and  untold  knowl- 
edge unfolded,  after  this  writing  should  be  deciphered.  But  the 
result  of  deciphering  the  hieroglyphics  was  disappointing.  Much 
was  made  known  of  deep  interest,  but  tlie  results  did  not  meet  the 
expectations  of  students.     The  temple  inscriptions  were  found  to 


EGYPT. 


TheG 


Kaniak,  Thebes. 


concern  themselves  largely  with  chronicles  of  the  royal  campaigns  and 
victories,  and  with  detailed  catalogues  of  the  booty.     The  style  of 

the  inscriptions  is  prolix,  and 
much  space  is  taken  up  in  the 
repetition  of  titles.  The  study 
and  collation  of  inscriptions 
have  enabled  scholars  to  extend 
their  knowledge  of  Egyptian 
history  and  character  in  a  mul- 
titude of  interesting  ways,  but 
perhaps  the  most  interesting 
result  of  hieroglyphic  study 
is  negative.  From  what  has 
been  left  us  of  Egyptian  liter- 
ature we  find  it  differing  from 
later  literature  by  the  absence 
of  individuality  or  personality  of  style. 

This  uniformity  and  monotony  of  character  in  the  Egyj)- 
tian  writings  remind  us  that  the  greatness  of  this  nation  was  col- 
lective; it  did  not  lie  in  the  individuals,  but  in  the  mass.  The 
typical  expression  of  Egyptian  life  and  character  was  not  in  litera- 
ture— it  was  in  building.  It  is  on  the  architecture  of  Egypt  that 
the  colossal  greatness  of  this  nation  stamped  itself,  and  to  this  we 
must  look  especially  for  our  conceptions  of  its  character.  Along 
the  Nile  lie  the  most  stupendous,  and  the  earliest,  monuments  of 
history ;  in  their  ruins  more  imposing,  a  thousand  times,  than  the 
most  perfect  modern  structure.  Notwithstanding  the  magnificence 
and  number  of  these  remains,  they  represent  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  ancient  structures. 

Description  of  the  Buins.  *— It  is  not  till  the  traveler  reaches  Abydus,  about  three  hnndred 
and  fifty  miles  from  the  mouths  oi  the  Nile,  that  he  finds  an  important  temple  ruin  of  the  ancient 
period.  Meantime,  the  fertile  country  has  narrowed  from  its  greatest  width  in  the  Delta  to  a 
width,  above  the  head  of  the  Delta,  of  from  seven  to  nine  miles.    On  either  side  of  this  strip 


•  The  smallest  print  is  not  intended  for  recitation  unless  directed  by  the  instructor  to  be 
BO  used. 


TEMPLE    RUINS.  7 

of  land,  annually  fertilized  by  the  inundations  of  the  river,  lie  barren  mountains,  with  deserts 
beyond.  The  temple  at  Abydus,  built  about  1400  b.  c.  by  King  Sethos  I. ,  is  well  preserved.  Here, 
aa  in  all  temples,  the  roofs  and  ceilings  are  solid  blocks  of  stone.  About  fifty  miles  higher  up 
the  stream,  at  Denderah,  is  found  a  splendid  temple  completed  by  the  last  of  the  Greek  sov- 
ereigns of  Egypt,  Cleopatra,  about  50  b.  c.  The  ruins  of  Thebes,  most  important  of  all,  are 
next  reached.  Some  of  these  are  named  after  the  Arab  villages  built  around  them— as  the 
ruins  of  Karnak,  of  Luxor,  of  Kourneh,  and  of  Medinet  Habou.  The  date  of  these  temples 
varies  from  1600  to  1200  b.  c. 

Thothmes  III.,  about  1600  B.C.,  built  the  earliest  Theban  temple  which  remains  in 
any  sort  of  preservation  (one  of  those  at  Karnak),  though  there  are  some  temple  columns 
standing  of  earlier  date.  This  king  erected  before  a  temple  at  On,  in  the  Delta,  the  two  obe- 
lisks which  have  been  recently  transported,  the  one  to  London,  the  other  to  New  York. 

Amenophis  III.,  about  1 500  B.  C,  erected  the  two  colossal  statues  at  Thebes  known  as 
the  statues  of  "  Memnon,"  each  sixty  feet  in  height.  He  also  built  the  Theban  temples  whose 
remains  are  named  after  the  Arab  village  of  Luxor.  Between  Luxor  and  Karnak  he  placed  an 
alley  of  sphinxes,  six  hundred  in  number,  each  one  from  12  to  18  feet  long,  in  solid  blocks  of  stone. 

Sethos  I.,  about  1400  B.  C,  built,  besides  the  temple  of  Abydus,  the  Theban  temple  of 
Kourneh,  and  began  the  Great  Hall  of  Karnak.  This  was  finished  by  his  son,  Ramses  II., 
1350  b.  c.  The  roofing  blocks  of  its  central  nave  are  each  25  feet  long.  The  Great  Hall 
was  340  feet  by  170,  and  contained  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  columns.  The  twelve  largest 
are  75  feet  high  and  12  feet  in  diameter.  On  the  top  of  the  capital  of  a  single  one  of  the  largest 
columns  a  hundred  men  might  stand  together.  Ramses  II.  also  built  at  Thebes  the  temple 
now  known  as  the  Ramesseum.  Beside  its  ruins  lie  the  fragments  of  a  statue  of  Ramses 
in  red  granite,  which  was  75  feet  high,  and  weighed  887  tons.  The  Theban  temple  near  the 
Arab  village  of  Medinet  Habou  was  built  by  Ramses  IIL  about  1370  b,  c. 

Above  the  temple  ruins  of  Thebes  lie  those  of  Esneh  (Latonpolis),  Edfou,  Kom  Om- 
bos,  and  of  the  Island  of  Philse.  All  of  these  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Greek  rule  over  Egypt, 
after  b.  c.  330,  or  to  the  Roman  period,  after  b.  c.  30.  They  are,  notwithstanding,  absolutely 
Egyptian  in  character,  a  most  remarkable  fact  when  we  remember  that  other  countries  ruled  by 
Greeks  and  Romans  adopted  their  forms  of  art.  The  peculiar  tenacity  of  Egyptian  customs 
in  general,  which  foreign  influence  could  not  shake,  is  illustrated  by  this  permanence  of  their 
architectural  styles.  The  temple  at  Edfou  is  the  best  preserved,  and  serves  as  a  type  by  which 
other  ruins  may  be  imagined  in  restoration. 

The  Island  of  Philae,  five  hundred  and  twenty-six  miles  fi-om  the  mouths  of  the  Nile, 
marks  the  limit  of  Egypt  proper.  Rocky  formations  here  create  a  cataract  in  the  Nile,  known 
as  the  First  Cataract,  which  impedes  river  navigation  to  the  south.  Above  this  point  the  char- 
acter of  the  country  begins  to  change.  The  narrow  strip  of  fertile  soil  becomes  still  narrower, 
lying  on  one  side  of  the  river,  and  only  two  or  three  miles  wide.  Prom  the  Plrst  Cataract 
to  the  Second  (about  two  hundred  miles),  this  country  is  known  as  Nubia.  Above  the  Second 
Cataract  lies  Ethiopia,  stretching  for  three  hundred  miles  to  the  Third  Cataract.  Egyptian 
temples  are  found  along  the  river  banks  through  Nubia  and  Ethiopia,  showing  that  the  civiliza- 
tion as  well  as  the  armies  of  Egypt  controlled  these  countries. 

The  most  important  monuments  of  Nubia  are  the  rock  temples  of  Ipsamboul, 
executed  under  Ramses  n.  about  1350  b.  c.  The  largest  of  these  has  a  hewn  facade  100  feet 
high,  with  four  sitting  figures ;  portraits  of  the  king,  semi-detached  from  the  rock ;  each  75 
feet  high.  The  temple  is  cut  into  the  rock  150  feet,  with  an  interior  height  of  35  feet,  the 
ceiling  being  supported  by  colossal  human  forms.  See  view  from  Ipsamboul,  p.  10 ;  from 
Edfou,  p.  12  •  and  portrait  of  Thothmes  Til.  at  p.  15. 


8 


EGYPT 


The  Great  Pyramid. 


THE   PYRAMIDS  AND  THE  OLD   EMPIRE   OF   MEMPHIS. 
The  large  number  of  ruined  temples  in  Ethiopia  and 
Nubia  led  the  earlier  writers  of  our  century  to  seek  the  origins  of 

Egyptian  civilization  in  this 
direction.  But  the  same  ex- 
planation accounts  at  once  for 
the  disappearance  of  temple 
ruins  in  the  lower  Nile  valley, 
and  for  the  fact  that  the  oldest 
Egyptian  civilization  centered 
there.  The  superior  fertility 
of  the  Delta,  and  the  large 
expanse  of  cultivable  ground, 
made  this  portion  of  the  coun- 
try the  seat  of  earliest  civiliza- 
tion, and  also,  in  later  times, 
the  most  tempting  to  invasion,  and  the  most  open  to  the  destruc- 
tions of  foreign  conquest.  The  proximity  of  the  Delta  to  invading 
populations  from  Arabia  and  Syria  made  it  peculiarly  exposed  to 
attack.  On  this  account,  the  Mohammedan  Arabs,  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  settled  and  increased  especially  here.  From  their  time 
dates  the  entire  destruction  of  ancient  city  ruins  in  the  lower  valley. 
These  ruins  have  been  used  as  building  quarries  by  the  new  settlers, 
and  have  in  this  manner  disappeared. 

Only  the  Pyramids,  near  the  head  of  the  Delta,  have  been  able  to 
withstand  this  process  of  destruction,  and  thus  they  are  interesting, 
not  only  for  themselves,  but  also  because  they  represent  the  earliest 
epoch  of  Egyptian  history  and  architecture — the  period  when  Mem- 
phis, at  the  head  of  the  Delta,  was  the  capital. 

The  Pyramids  were  the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  Memphis— the 
kings  of  the  Old  Empire.  The  kings  of  the  New  Empire,  whose 
capital  was  Thebes,  were  buried  in  rock  tombs  still  to  be  seen  there 
in  the  mountain-sides.    The  important  royal  names  of  this  period 


THE    PYRAMIDS.  9 

have  been   already  mentioned  in  connection  with   the  ruins  of 
Thebes. 

Over  sixty  pyramids  are  still  in  fair  preservation.  Of  these,  the 
greater  pyramids  of  Gizeh,  three  in  number,  are  the  most  won- 
derful. The  largest  of  the  three  covers  thirteen  acres  of  ground — 
twice  the  area  of  the  largest  building  in  the  world,  St.  Peter's  at 
Eome — and  is  480  feet  high.*  It  contains  two  tomb  chambers  for 
the  stone  coflBus  of  the  king  and  queen.  The  king  who  built  this 
pyramid  was  named  Chufu  f — a  name  transformed  by  the  Greek 
Herodotus,  who  visited  Egypt  in  the  5th  century  b.  c.  and  de- 
scribed the  pyramids,  into  Cheops-J  The  pyramid  of  Ohafra 
(Chephren,  in  Herodotus)  is  447  feet  high;  of  Menkera  (Myker- 
inus),  218  feet  high.  The  entrances  to  the  galleries  which  lead 
to  the  tomb  chambers  were  originally  closed  by  enormous  blocks 
of  stone. 

Religion.— The  sentiment  which  prompted  the  construction  of  these  tombs  was  analogous 
to  that  which  created  the  custom  of  embalming  the  mummy.  Both  are  expressions  of  an  ideal 
of  eternal  duration,  which  also  stamped  itself  on  the  massive  and  solemn  forms  of  the  Egyptian 
temples.  The  Egyptians  were  believers  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  in  rewards  and  punish- 
ments after  death.  Their  moral  law  contained  many  distinctions  of  great  refinement.  Their 
worship  of  animals  became,  among  the  lower  orders  in  the  times  of  decay,  a  degrading  idol- 
atry ;  but  it  first  originated  in  the  pictorial  symbolism  by  which  the  forms  of  animals  were  used 
to  indicate  the  attributes  of  various  divinities,  and  so  were  connected  with  them.  It  probably 
was  the  expression,  also,  of  a  reverence  for  animal  life,  which  strove  to  limit  the  killing  of 
various  kinds  of  animals  for  food,  by  making  them  sacred.  In  the  submissive  nature  of  the 
brute  creation,  accomplishing  its  work  without  repining,  obedient  to  the  natural  instinct  of 
its  species,  the  creature  of  habit  and  routine,  the  Egyptian  found  the  symbol  of  the  life  which 
he  himself  pursued. 

The  Egyptian  mythology  was  polytheistic  in  form,  its  deities  being  personifications  of  the 
forces  of  nature,  the  Sun-god,  Ra,  at  the  head. 

The  Sphinx.— Near  the  pyramid  of  Chafra  is  the  colossal  rock-hewn  Sphinx,  65  feet  in 
height  and  142  feet  in  length,  including  the  extended  paws.  It  consists  of  a  lion's  body  with 
a  human  head,  the  emblem  of  supreme  power  and  supreme  intellect  in  combination,  the  Egyp- 
tian symbol  of  divinity.  Between  the  paws  is  a  small  temple  18  feet  high.  On  its  wall  an 
inscription  records  that  Chafra  restored  the  Sphinx,  leaving  us  to  assume  an  unknown  author 
and  an  earlier  date  for  this  wonder  of  the  world. 

*  The  Strasburg  Cathedral  tower,  the  highest  in  Europe,  is  461  feet  high ;  the  dome  of  St. 
Peters  is  429  feet  high. 
+  Soft  "ch"  in  Egyptian. 
If  Pronounced,  as  always  in  Greek,  hard  "  ch." 


10 


EGYPT. 


The  oldest  standinsr  obelisk,  at  On  (Heliopolis),  was  erected  by  a  king,  Sesortasen  1, 
somewhat  later  than  the  time  of  the  great  pyramids.  The  obelisks  were  probably  symbols  of  the 
gnn's  rays, certainly  dedicated  to  the  Sun-god.  Amenemha  III.  constructed  the  Labyrinth,  an 
immense  palace,  for  the  use  of  congresses  of  the  Egyptian  magistrates,  now  utterly  ruined,  but 
seen  and  described  by  Herodotus.  Amenemha  III.  also  excavated  the  immense  reservoir  called 
Lake  Mceris,  to  control  and  regulate  the  inuijdations  of  the  Nile,  by  holding  over  the  waters 
of  an  excessive  inundation  for  the  years  of  drought.  The  site  and  outlines  of  this  reservoir, 
with  a  ruined  pyramid  in  the  center,  are  still  visible.  There  is  a  Nile  measure,  for  naarking 
the  height  of  the  inundations,  cut  in  the  x-ock  at  the  Second  Cataract,  and  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  Amenemha  III.,  showing  that  the  armies  of  the  Old  Empire  had  already  conquered 
Nubia. 

Tombs  of  Beni  Hassan.— For  the  period  of  the  "  Old  Empire"  the  wall-paintings  in 
the  rock  tombs  of  Beni  Hassan,  between  Memphis  and  Abydus,  have  the  deepest  interest.  All 
phases  of  Egjrptian  life  and  industry  are  here  represented  in  still  vivid  colors. 

The  drawing  of  the  Egyptian  pictures  is  stamped  with  the  formalism  and  rigidity  of  the 
people,  but  its  peculiarities  are  partly  the  result  of  decorative  principles  which  reject  tints  and 
shadings  for  the  sake  of  strong  and  positive  color  effects  ;  which  refuse  to  represent  figuMs 
out  of  profile  in  order  to  maintain  harmony  with  the  flat  surface  decorated.  The  earliest  known 
drawings  and  statues  are  the  most  life-like,  and  often  thoroughly  natural. 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   EGYPTIAN    HISTORY. 


Between  the  Memphite  Empire  of  the  pyramids,  the  times 
of  Chiifu,  Chafra,  Menkeva,  Sesortasen  I.,  and  Amenemha   III., 

and  the  Theban  Empire,  distin- 
guished by  the  temple  ruins  of 
Karnak,  Luxor,  Medinet  Ha- 
bou,  Abydus,  and  Ipsamboul, 
the  times  of  Thothmes  III., 
Amenophis  III.,  S  ethos  I., 
Ilamses  II.,  and  Ramses  III., 
til  ere  was  an  intervening  pe- 
riod known  as  the  Middle  Em- 
pire. 

Owing  to  insufficient,  or  as 
yet  unsupplied,  records,  the  be- 
ginning and  duration  of  the 
Old  Empire  are  not  yet  definitely  known.  The  year  2000  B.  c.  may 
be  taken  as  an  approximate  round  number  for  its  close.     It  was 


Kock  Temple  al  Ipsamboul, 
with  colossal  statues  of  Ramses  II. 


CHRONOLOGY .  H 

overthrown  by  a  foreign  conquest,  by  way  of  Suez,  of  wandering 
tribes  from  Arabia  or  Syria. 

Middle  Empire. — The  foreign  conquerors  were  known  as  Hyk- 
sos  (Shepherds),  During  their  ascendency  the  Hebrews  came  into 
Egypt.  The  date  for  Joseph  is  fixed  approximately  *  at  b.  c.  1750. 
The  overthrow  of  the  Hykso  power  was  completed  under  Thothmes 
III.,  whose  date,  about  b.  c.  1600,  begins  the  time  of  the  — 

New  Empire.  Its  period  of  greatest  glory  was  under  Ramses 
II.,  B.  c.  1350.  Besides  conquests  in  Ethiopia,  he  made  repeated 
campaigns  through  Syria  to  the  upper  portions  of  the  Tigris-Eu- 
phrates valley,  and  possibly  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Island  of  Cyprus 
^was  at  this  time  under  Egyptian  ascendency.  On  the  mountain- 
side near  Beyrout,  in  Syria,  may  still  be  seen  immense  reliefs  of 
figures  in  Egyptian  style,  believed  to  date  from  these  campaigns. 

The  son' of  Ramses  II.  was  Menephtah.  He  is  considered  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  which  would  date,  in  this  case,  about 
1314  B.  c. 

After  Ramses  III.,  about  1270  b.  c,  began  the  decline  of  the 
New  Empire,  which  lasted,  however,  over  seven  hundred  years 
longer.  After  1200,  it  was  ruled  for  a  time  by  kings  of  an  Ethi- 
opian dynasty,  and  also  for  a  time,  by  kings  of  Assyrian  blood  or 
appointment. 

The  final  overthrow  of  Egyptian  independence  was  eflFected 
by  the  Persian  Cambyses,  in  b.  c.  525.  The  institutions  were  not, 
however,  changed  by  this  conquest,  nor  by  the  succeeding  conquests 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

REVIEW   OF  THE   LEADING    DATES   OF  ANCIENT    EGYPTIAN    HISTORY. 

Old  Empire  (Pyramid  kings),  before b.  c.  3000 

Hyksos,  Middle  Empire,  ends  about "     1600 

New  Empire,  ends "       525 

Persian  period,  ends  about "       333 

Greek  period,  ends  about "        50 

Roman  period,  ends  with  an  Arab-Mohammedan  conquest A.  D,  640 

*  By  the  computation  of  Brugsch  and  Josephue. 


12 


EGYPT. 


After  the  Arab  Mohammedan  conquest,  Egypt  was  ruled  by  different  Mohammedan  dynas- 
ties till  after  a.  d.  1500,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  the  Turkish  Empire,  its  present  govern- 
meot. 

Christianity  made  rapid  progress  in  Egypt  from  the  opening  of  the  Christian  era,  and  was 
definitely  sanctioned,  as  in  all  other  Roman  provinces,  under  the  Roman  Emperor  Constantine 
)he  Great,  after  a.  d,  300. 

The  old  Egyptian  temples  were  closed  under  the  Roman  Emperor  Theodosias  the  Great, 
and  pagan  worship  was  forbidden  before  a.  d.  400. 


CHARACTER  AND    INSTITUTIONS  OF  THE   EGYPTIANS. 

The  decline  of  the  New  Empire,  after  b.  c.  1200,  concerned  chiefly 
the  power  of  Egypt  over  other  nations,  and  the  successions  of  foreign  domina- 
tion after  b.  c.  525  (time  of  the  Per- 
/^"^  ^>.        sian  conquest),  are  all  subordinate 

to  the  grand  fact  that  the  Egyptian 
institutions  and  character  were  not 
changed  by  the  changes  of  govern- 
ment. The  picture  of  the  last  Greek 
sovereign,  Cleopatra,  on  the  wall  of 
the  temple  of  Denderah,  is  still 
made  according  to  the  stiff,  sche- 
matic style  of  Egyptian  art.  At  this 
time  (about  b.  c.  50),  after  nearly 
five  hundred  years  of  foreign  rule, 
the  killing  of  a  cat,  a  sacred  animal, 
by  a  Roman  soldier,  roused  a  popu- 
lar revolt  which  came  near  destroying  the  Roman  army,  to  which  the  people 
had  quietly  submitted  before  this  sacrilege.  In  the  second  century  after  Christ 
the  Egyptian  style  of  sculpture  even  became  fashionable  at  Rome.  The  name 
of  the  Roman  Emperor  Decius,  of  the  third  century  after  Christ,  is  inscribed 
on  the  temple  of  Esneh  in  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

This  tenacity  of  fixed  character  and  institutions  doubtless  orig- 
inated in  the  peculiar  conditions  of  geography  and  climate.  The  absolute 
dependence  of  the  entire  people  on  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile  obliged 
them  to  regularity  of  habit  in  all  departments  of  life,  and  to  constantly  recur- 
ring occupations  at  constantly  recurring  intervals.  Rain  is  unknown  in  Upper 
Egypt,  and  rarely  falls  in  the  Delta.  No  dependence  whatever  is  placed  on 
this  necessity  of  all  other  agriculture,  which  is  therefore  subject  to  such 
changes  and  variations.    The  Nile  differs  from  all  rivers  in  the  world  in  receiy- 


Temple  of  \\ 


CHARACTER    AND    INSTITUTIONS.  13 

ing  no  tributaries  for  a  distance  of  about  1350  miles  above  its  mouths,  through 
Eigypt,  Nubia,  and  Ethiopia.  Its  annual  rise  and  overflow  result  from  the 
melting  of  the  snows  on  the  lofty  mountains  of  Central  Africa,  and  occur  at 
almost  exactly  the  same  dates  of  each  suceeeding  year.  The  sediment  deposited 
during  the  overflow  is  a  rich  fertilizer.  Thus  the  sowing  of  seed,  reaping  the 
harvest,  repairing  the  dykes  and  canals,  verification  of  landmarks,  and  all 
other  agricultural  activities,  were  here  forced  into  a  regularity  of  recurrence 
and  arrangement  which  the  climate  and  conditions  of  other  countries  would 
not  even  remotely  allow. 

Besides  the  fixity  and  regularity  of  all  other  habits  of  life,  determined  by 
the  controlling  occupation,  the  Egyptians  were  fixed  still  further  in  accustomed 
grooves  by  an  exclusiveness  which  was  also  forced  upon  them.  Other  nations 
have  been  modified  by  contact  with  those  surrounding  them,  and  have  often 
wished  to  change  their  conditions  to  resemble  others.  But  the  Egyptians 
wished  to  repel  all  other  nations.  Their  own  valley  supplied  them  with  an 
unfailing  source  of  riches,  for  which  no  foreign  residence  could  ofEer  them 
a  substitute.  Their  valley  was  bounded  by  deserts  from  which  the  wan- 
dering nomads  were  constantly  tempted  to  descend  for  pillage.  Barbarians 
from  the  wilds  of  Southern  Africa  were  tempted  to  descend  the  Nile.  Wander- 
ing tribes  from  the  desert  Peninsula  of  Sinai,  from  Arabia,  or  Syria,  were  con- 
stantly tempted  to  effect  an  entrance  by  way  of  Suez.  Thus  the  Egyptians 
were  obliged  to  be  an  exclusive  people.  They  wanted  to  keep  other  people 
out  of  their  country,  and  never  wanted  to  leave  it  themselves,  unless  to  make 
their  own  land  secure  by  terrifying  other  warlike  nations.  The  campaigns 
of  their  greatest  conquerors  never  really  aimed  to  combine  other  countries  with 
the  Egyptian  valley,  but  simply  to  teach  them  that  they  were  not  to  enter  it. 

To  these  two  elements  of  influence — that  of  constantly  recurring  habits  of 
life,  and  the  antagonism  to  all  modifying  external  influence — we  may  add  the 
influencje  of  landscape  and  climate.  The  Egyptian  lived  in  a  valley  of 
fertile  soil,  one  thousand  miles  long,  and  from  two  to  nine  miles  wide  above 
the  Delta,  with  barren  mountains  on  either  side.  The  monotony  of  climate 
and  surroundings  added  an  emphasis  to  the  more  important  influences  pro- 
duced by  the  same  grand  facts. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  riches  of  Egypt  and  its  relation  to  sur- 
rounding nations,  we  may  argue  the  reasons  for  a  form  of  government  of 
the  most  absolute  despotism.  The  loss  of  a  single  battle  might  place  the 
entire  valley  at  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  There  were  no  mountain  fast- 
nesses to  prolong  resistance  or  check  invasion.  The  rivers  of  other  countries 
offer  obstacles  to  attack,  but  the  line  of  the  river  being  also  the  line  of  the 


14  EGYPT. 

country,  here  made  attack  more  easy.  Thus  the  military  and  governmental 
forces  were  of  necessity  massed  together — placed  at  the  sole  disposal  of  a  single 
man  that  he  might  use  them  with  instantaneous  and  crushing  power  against 
the  foreign  foe.  The  kings  of  Egypt  were  not  hated  as  despots ;  they  were 
worshiped  as  the  safety  of  the  nation.  And  since  the  form  of  government 
could  not  be  changed  without  endangering  the  people,  Egypt  was  generally 
free  from  seditions  and  would-be  refoi-mers.  A  despotic  government,  devised 
and  accepted  by  the  people,  reacted  upon  them  and  held  them  to  their  tradi- 
tional institutions  from  century  to  century. 

Thus  we  understand  the  system  of  caste  by  which  each  Egyptian  fol- 
lowed the  occupation  of  his  father,  and  the  division  of  hereditary  occupations, 
by  which  priests,  who  were  the  men  of  learning,  formed  one  caste,  the  warriors 
another,  agriculturists  another.  The  various  trades  and  occupations  were  all 
hereditary.  There  are  found  cases  in  the  tomb  inscriptions,  where  for  twenty 
generations  the  son  is  recorded  as  having  followed  the  occupation  of  his  father. 
The  lives  of  individuals  were  so  bound  down  by  tradition,  that  in  the  case  of 
the  king  his  hours  of  eating  and  drinking  and  of  sleeping  were  defined  by 
unvarying  law. 

EGYPTIAN   CIVILIZATION. 

The  antiquity  of  Egyptian  civilization,  the  wealth  of  the  country,  the  con- 
tinuity of  life,  and  the  hereditary  transmission  of  traditional  occupations,  help 
to  explain  the  perfection  of  Egyptian  science  and  of  the  technical  and 
mechanic  arts.  On  the  threshold  of  history  we  are  astounded  by  the  exist- 
ence of  a  nation  which  surpassed  in  many  arts  of  civilized  life  the  boasted 
advancement  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  various  applications  of  electricity, 
the  use  of  steam,  photography,  printing,  and  the  modern  explosive  agents,  are 
almost  the  sole  exceptions  to  the  general  law  of  Egyptian  superiority  to,  or 
equality  with,  ourselves,  in  material  things. 

The  jealousy  with  which  the  priests  guarded  their  knowledge  makes  the 
extent  of  their  astronomic  science  uncertain,  but  it  was  certainly  great. 
The  Greek  astronomers  who  flourished  in  Egypt  in  the  3d  century  b.  c.  ,  were  the 
first  who  announced  to  the  world  the  true  diameter  of  our  earth,  the  approximate 
distances  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  the  revolution  of  our  planetary  system  round 
the  sun.  How  much  of  this  knowledge  they  owed  to  Egyptian  studies  is  un- 
certain, but  these  were  at  least  the  basis  of  their  own  results.  It  was  an  Egyp- 
tian astronomer  who  computed,  at  a  later  time,  for  Julius  Cjesar,  the  Julian 
Calendar  (first  corrected  under  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  in  the  16th  century  a  d.). 


CIVILIZATION. 


15 


Tlie  high  perfection  reached  in  geometrical  science  is  implied  in  the 
construction  of  the  pyramids  and  temples.     (Euclid,  the  Greek  geometer  of  the 
3d  century  b.  c.  ,  was  a  resident  of  Alexandria.)     No  buildings,  excepting  those 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  Phoenicians, 
taught  by  Egyptian  art,  have  ever 
exhibited   the    same  accuracy  and 
delicacy  of  masonry  construction. 

Blocks  of  stone  over  100  feet  in 
length  were  quarried  in  certain  obe- 
lisks. An  obelisk  90  feet  high  is 
still  erect  at  Thebes.  The  still 
standing  statues  of  Amenophis  III., 
at  Thebes,  are  50  feet  high  in  the 
solid  block,  resting  on  a  solid  pedes- 
tal 10  feet  high.  The  roofing  blocks 
of  the  Great  Hall  of  Karnak  have 
been  mentioned.  In  the  great  pyra- 
mids, blocks  20  feet  long  are  com- 
mon. Herodotus  tells  of  a  single 
stone  hewn  into  the  aspect  of  a 
small  temple,  which  was  moved 
from  the  quarry  at  Assouan,  at  the 
First  Cataract,  to  the  Delta  of  the 
Nile.  Its  dimensions  were  31  feet 
by  31i  feet,  and  18  feet  high.  He 
says  that  the  architect  engaged  in 
moving  the  stone,  which  was  des- 
tined to  stand  in  the  court  of  a  tem- 
ple, heaved  so  deep  a  sigh  when  it 
had  reached  the  outer  entrance,  that 
the  king  in  pity  ordered  the  work- 
men to  leave  it  standing  there.  This 
block  was  seen  and  described  by  an 
Arabian  physician,  Abdulatief,  in 
the  13th  century  after  Christ.     It  has  since  disappeared. 

The  method  by  which  heavy  blocks  were  raised  is  in  dispute, 
but  the  use  of  cranes  and  derricks  appears  sufficiently  certain.  The  blocks 
were  moved  from  the  quarries  on  wooden  sledges.  These  were  drawn  by  man 
power  on  tramways  of  wood,  which  were  greased.     A  picture  at  Beni  Hassan 


Thothmes  ni.    Colossal  Head  of  Red 
Granite,  British  Museum. 


16  EGYPT. 

exhibits  the  moving  of  a  colossal  statue  in  this  way,  while  a  workman  pours 
oil  under  the  sledge  runners. 

The  arts  of  metallurgy  may  be  argued  from  the  superior  cutting  of  the 
blocks  of  stone,  and  they  are  otherwise  attested.  The  granites  habitually  used 
in  the  colossal  sculptures  turn  the  best  modem  steel  chisel.  The  use  of  steel  is 
also  argued  from  the  colors  used  to  distinguish  different  metals  in  the  pictures 
at  Beni  Hassan.  Iron  clamps  have  been  found  in  the  pyramids.  Gold  and 
silver  were  worked  as  perfectly  as  now.  The  goldbeater's  art  was  practised  in 
perfection.  Gold  and  silver  wires  of  extreme  tenuity  were  woven  into  textile 
fabrics. 

Precious  gems  were  counterfeited  in  glass,  and  artificial  emeralds  were 
made  of  enormous  size.  The  diamond  was  used  in  cutting  glass.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  British  "crown"  glass  is  the  same  as  that  made  in  Egypt.  The 
well-known  superiority  of  Venetian  glass  manufactures  in  modern  times  is  an 
inheritance  from  antiquity.  There  is  still  in  existence  an  Egyptian  mosaic  of 
colored  glass  threads,  under  two-thirds  of  an  inch  square,  making  the  picture 
of  a  duck,  in  which  the  eyeball  and  the  texture  of  the  wing  feathers  can  be 
clearly  distinguished. 

Pottery  was  made,  as  now,  by  the  potter's  wheel.  Leather  manufac- 
ture was  carried  to  the  highest  perfection.  In  the  tomb  pictures,  the  leather- 
cutter  holds  the  semicircular  knife  still  used  in  this  trade.  Paper  was  made 
from  the  papyrus  plant.  It  is  from  the  Greek  word  papyrus,  applied  to  this 
plant,  that  our  word  paper  is  derived.  Use  was  made  of  papier  mache  for 
various  utensils ;  even  boats  of  burden  were  made  of  it.  Specimens  of  Egyp- 
tian rope  and  textile  fabrics  are  common  in  the  museums  of  Europe.  The 
finer  Egyptian  linens  were  equal  to  our  finest  cambric.  The  carpenter's 
art  was  practised  in  perfection,  as  still  existing  carpentry  work  demonstrates. 
The  furniture  was  joined,  not  glued,  although  glue  was  known.  The  gay 
colors  and  luxurious  stuflBngs  of  modern  upholstery  are  found  in  the  articles  of 
furniture  represented  in  the  tomb  pictures.  Egyptian  wigs  are  not  uncommon 
in  the  museums.  One  of  the  earliest  Egyptian  kings  is  noted  for  the  invention 
of  a  hair  pomade ;  another  for  a  treatise  on  medicine.  Draughtsmen  and  a 
checker  board  have  been  found  at  Thebes. 

The  perfection  of  the  chemical  arts  is  implied  in  the  etymology  of  the 
word  Chemistry.  The  Egyptians  called  their  country  Chemi  (the  black  land). 
The  Arabian  Mohammedans  coined  from  this  word  the  word  Chemistry — that  is 
to  say,  "  the  Egyptian  art."  The  perfection  of  chemical  art  is  also  implied  in 
the  use  of  changing  dyes  in  te3  tile  fabrics,  such  as  are  found  in  moire  antique 
Bilk,  and  in  the  still  brilliant  coiors^of  Egyptian  paintings  four  thousand  years 


SUMMARY,  17 

old.  The  plaster  and  mortar  work  lias  stood  the  same  wonderful  test  of 
time,  and  is  far  superior  to  our  own.  The  use  of  the  arch  principle  (contrary  to 
supposition  of  earlier  writers  of  our  century)  was  habitually  made  in  brick 
structures.  Many  brick  arches  are  still  found  in  Thebes.  In  temple  structures 
the  arch  was  never  used ;  whence  the  earlier  belief  that  it  was  unknown. 


SUMMARY. 

From  the  modern  studies  in  the  hieroglyphic  records  of  Egypt, 
we  have  passed  to  monuments  of  architecture,  which  require  no 
study  of  ancient  languages  or  of  forgotten  alphabets  to  persuade 
us  of  the  genius  and  greatness  of  their  founders.  From  the  pres- 
ent distribution  of  ancient  ruins,  we  learn  to  distinguish  from  the 
epoch  of  the  still  existing  temples,  another  of  still  earlier  date,  repre- 
sented by  the  pyramids.  Memphis  and  Thebes  were  the  two  suc- 
cessive centres  of  Egyptian  history.  The  massive  heaviness  of  Egyp- 
tian architecture,  the  rigid  aspect  of  its  art,  symbolize  the  fixity  and 
unchanging  aspects  of  Egyptian  hfe.  So  far  we  are  dealing  only 
with  Egypt  studied  for  itself;  but  in  approaching  the  technical 
and  mechanic  arts  of  Egyptian  civilization,  we  approach  the  signifi- 
cance of  Egypt  for  later  history.  One  other  people  shares  with  her 
the  honor  of  preparing  for  all  later  civilization  its  material  basis. 
That  people  was  the  Ohaldseo-Assyrian. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON    EGYPTIAN    HISTORY. 

These  questions  are  arranged  without  reference  to  the  order  of  theboolc,  to  test  the  general 
knowledge  of  the  student.  It  is  suggested  that  the  answers  to  these  questions,  and  to  those  of 
later  corresponding  sections,  be  written  down  in  such  manner  as  to  make  an  affirmative  sen- 
tence, by  combining  the  question  and  answer.  The  pupil  will  then  have,  in  consecutive 
written  form,  an  abridged  summary  of  the  work.  The  following  sentences,  combined  from 
the  first  three  questions  and  answers,  will  serve  as  an  example  : — The  Mohammedan  conquest 
divides  the  old  Egyptian  culture  from  modern  times.  It  took  place  about  640  a.  d.  The  Moham- 
medan Arabs,  and  the  Byzantine  Greeks  or  East  Bomans,  passed  down  the  Egyptian  arts,  as 
then  existing,  to  later  times,  etc.,  etc. 

What  conquest  divides  the  old  Egyptian  culture  from  modem  times  ?  Ans.  The  Moham- 
medan conquest. 

Date  this  conquest.    (Chronology,  p.  11.) 


18  EGYPT. 

What  nations  passed  down  to  later  times  Egyptian  arts  as  then  existing  ?  Am.  The  Moham- 
medan Arabs,  and  the  Byzantine  Greeks  or  East  Romans. 

How  long  had  the  Romans  been  in  contact  with  Egypt  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  ? 
(Chronology,  p.  11.) 

When'did  the  Greeks  come  in  close  contact  with  Egypt  ?— by  what  conquest  ? 

What  nation  had  carried  Egyptian  arts  to  Greece  and  ItAly  at  a  much  earlier  date  ?  Ana.  The 
Syrian  Phoenicians,  as  early  at  least  as  b.  c.  1500. 

Recapitulate  the  nations  contributing  to  the  general  diffusion  of  Egyptian  arts  and  sciences, 
and  the  periods  after  which  they  were  successively  in  contact  with  Egypt  ? 

Mention  important  Egyptian  arts  and  sciences  ? 

What  early  date  may  be  fixed  on  as  a  time  before  which  these  arts  and  sciences  were  per- 
fectly developed  ?    Answer  implied  in  the  following  question. 

What  other  remains  belong  to  the  epoch  of  the  pyramids  ? 

Where  are  the  pjrramids  ? 

Why  are  other  remains  of  their  epoch  so  scanty  ? 

In  what  period  did  the  Jews  enter  Egypt  ? 

Where  are  the  most  important  remains  of  the  New  Empire? 

Who  conquered  it? 

How  long  was  this  before  the  Greek  conquest  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  art  in  Egypt  under  the  Greeks  and  Romans? 

What  does  this  indicate  and  iUustrate  (p.  12)  ? 

Explain  some  conditions  of  life  contributing  to  the  tenacity  and  duration  of  Egjrptian 
civilization  (p.  13)  ? 

What  other  nation  shares  with  Egypt  the  honor  of  preparing  for  later  civilization  its  mate- 
rial basis  ? 


CHALD^A  AND  ASSYRIA 


POLITICAL     HISTORY. 


In  the  single  valley  formed  by  two  rivers,  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  (now  belonging  to  Turkey,  but  to-day  an  almost  ruined 
country),  we  find  again  the  natural  process  by  which  the  more 
fertile  lower  river  valley  was  the  earlier  seat  of  empire.    The  Prov- 


Au  Assyrian  Palace  (Kestoration). 

ince  of  Chaldaea  (the  lower  valley),  capitaT  Babylon,  was  the  first 
seat  of  empire.  The  province  of  Assyria,  capital  Nineveh,  was 
the  later  military  and  governmental  centre.  About  1250  b.  c. 
the  transfer  was  efiected,  and  the  rise  of  Assyria  is  thus  contem- 
porary with  the  decline  of  the  external  power  of  the  New  Empire 
of  Egypt. 

In  distinguishing  the  Chaldsean  Empire  from  the  As- 
syrian, not  much  more  difference  is  implied  than  that  between  the 


20  CHALDiEA    AND    ASSYRIA. 

Empires  of  Memphis  and  of  Thebes.  The  civilization  remained 
essentially  the  same,  since  the  one  river  valley  was  open  to  the  same 
influences.  It  is  true  that  the  Chaldseans  and  Assyrians  were  not 
originally  of  one  blood,  but  this  made  no  more  difference  in  the 
unity  of  civilization  than  the  mixture  of  different  nations  in  America 
to-day. 

Assyrian  Empire. — The  most  essential  difference  between  the 
Chald^ean  and  the  Assyrian  Empire  lies  in  the  larger  extent  of  the 
latter.  The  Ohaldaean  Empire  took  in  the  whole  Tigris-Euphrates 
valley,  and  reached  over  Syria  at  times.  The  Assyrian  Empire 
was  much  more  firmly  fixed  in  its  control  of  Syria.  It  also 
extended  over  Armenia  and  Eastern  Asia  Minor  to  the  river  Halys 
(h2,liz).  On  the  East  of  the  Zagros  Mountains,  which  lie  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  the  Assyrian  Empire  comprehended  two 
important  provinces  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Persian  Gulf — 
viz.,  Media  (North)  and  Persia  (South).  It  extended  beyond  these 
provinces  at  times,  but  with  indefinite  boundaries,  toward  the  Indus. 

Media  and  Babylonia. — The  Assyrian  Empire,  supplanting 
the  Ohaldaean  about  1250  B.  c,  lasted  till  about  625  B.  c.  But  the 
change  which  took  place  then  was  only  one  of  external  government, 
and  the  conditions  of  civilization  were  unaltered.  The  Assyrian 
Empire  was  simply  divided  into  two  parts,  known  as  the  Median 
and  Babylonian  Empires.  The  province  of  Media  revolted,  and 
founded  an  empire  which  ruled  the  provinces  of  Persia,  Media,  and 
Asia  Minor  to  the  Halys.  The  province  of  Ohaldaea  revolted,  and 
ruled  an  empire  including  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  and  Syria. 
This  empire  is  called  Babylonian,  after  the  capital  of  Ohaldaea,  only 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  earlier  Ohaldaean  state  of  about  the  same 
extent.  Its  second  king,  Nebuchadnezzar,  lived  about  B.  c.  600. 
This  division  of  the  Assyrian  states  into  tlie  Median  and  Babylonian 
Empires  lasted  only  about  seventy  years,  till  about  555  B.  c. 

Persian  Empire. — The  province  of  Persia  then  revolted,  under 
Oyrus,  against  Media ;  conquering  rapidly  this  state  and  Babylonia. 
It  also  conquered  the  Lydian  Empire,  in  Asia  Minor,  beyond  the 


POLITICAL    HISTORY.  21 

Halys,  and  the  country  east  of  Media  and  Persia  to  the  Indus,  and 
in  525  B.  c,  under  Cambyses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  subdued  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Egypt. 

The  Persian  Empire  was  simply  the  reunited  Assyrian  Empire 
remodeled  and  enlarged.  The  character  of  the  civilization  was  not 
revolutionized.  The  Persian  mountaineers  took  the  lead  of  Western 
Asia  simply  as  governors  and  soldiers.  Their  empire  lasted  till 
333  B.  c.  This  date,  already  given  for  the  Greek  conquest  of 
Egypt,  may  stand  also  as  date  for  the  Greek  conquest  of  all  other 
Persian  provinces. 

This  last  conquest  effected  a  decided  change  of  manners,  cus- 
toms and  institutions  in  the  Chaldaeo-Assyrian  countries,  which 
will  be  noticed  under  Greek  History.  But  the  foregoing  sketch 
makes  apparent  that,  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  and  dependent 
countries,  from  the  dawn  of  history  to  the  fall  of  the  Persian  Em- 
pire, we  are  dealing  with  the  same  civilization  essentially.  Thus  we 
shall  be  able  to  describe  it  as  a  whole  in  the  next  section,  not  allow- 
ing the  changes  of  dynasty  to  confuse  us.  The  changes  and  gradual 
increase  of  area  are  important,  however,  and  the  distinctions  between 
the  empires  and  the  provinces  of  the  same  name  must  be  noted. 

TABLE   OF   EXTENT   OF  AREAS. 

Chaldean  Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  and  weak  hold  of  Syria. 

Assyrian  Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  Syria,  Asia  Minor  to  the  Halys, 
Media  (the  province),  Persia  (the  province),  with  changing  bound- 
aries to  the  east  of  these  two  provinces.  Asia  Minor,  beyond  the 
Halys,  was  a  vassal  state  (the  Lydian  Empire)  till  a  century  before 
the  fall  of  Nineveh. 

<^  f 

^  g  ^.  I  Babylonian  Empire. — Tigris-Euphrates  valley  and  Syria. 

•|  >^-|  -(  Median  Empire. — Province  of  Persia,  Province  of  Media,  and  Asia 
!E  J^  I      Minor  to  the  Halys. 

Persian  Empire. — Assyrian  States  reunited,  with  addition  of  the  rest  of  Asia 
Minor  (Lydian  Empire),  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  country  east  of  Media, 
find  Persia  to  the  Indu^. 


22  CHALD^A    AND     ASSYRIA. 

ICap  Explanation.— The  time  of  the  "Four  Great  Powers"  represented  on  tht;  map  is 
that  of  the  division  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  into  the  Empires  of  Media  and  Babylonia.  The 
two  additional  great  Eastern  powers  of  this  time  were  Lydia  and  E<;ypt. 

The  earlier  Chaldaean  Empire,  in  its  greatest  extent,  corresponded  to  the  dimensions  of 
"  Babylonia"  on  this  map.  The  extent  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  would  be  obtained  by  uniting 
the  States  of  Babylonia  and  Media  as  here  represented.  The  extent  of  the  Persian  Empire 
would  be  obtained  by  uniting  all  four  Great  Powers  with  the  addition  of  the  countries  on  the 
East,  as  far  as  the  Indus,  The  extent  of  the  Persian  Empire  is  also  indicated  on  the  map  for 
the  Empire  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  corresponded  in  extent  to  the  Persian,  with  the 
addition  of  the  Greek  states. 

In  the  use  of  this  map,  and  all  others,  it  is  very  desirable  to  make  comparison  with  the  maps 
of  a  modem  geography,  and  to  exercise  the  historical  knowledge  gained,  by  pointing  out  the 
fiame  facts  on  a  modern  map. 

TABLE  REPRESENTING  THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EASTERN  EMPIRES. 


Egypt.  ) 

Chaldea.— Assyria.—  P^^y^^^^*~r  Persian  Empire. 
( Media. —         ) 


TABLE  OF  DATES  FOR  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  TIGRIS-EUPHRATES  VALLEY. 

Chaldaean  Empire, — Unknown  beginning  to  about B.  c.  1250 

Assyrian  Empire. — Ends. , "      635 

Median         j  " 

Babylonian  P°^P^^^«--^"d  ^^o^* "      ^^^ 

Persian  Empire. — Ends  with  a  Greek  conquest  about **      333 


CIVILIZATION  OF  CHALD/EO-ASSYRIA. 

Interest  in  Assyrian  and  Chaldaean  history  was  awakened  in  the 
19th  century  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Henry  liayard,  an  English  traveler  and 
diplomatist.  It  appears  from  his  excavations  that  the  architecture  of  the  Chal- 
daeans  and  Assyrians  was  exclusively  of  brick.  Hence  heaps  of  shapeless  ruins 
are  all  that  remain  of  their  structures,  as  opposed  to  the  still  existing  massive 
slone  remains  of  ancient  Egypt.  In  the  immense  mounds,  scattered  here  and 
there  below  Babylon,  may  still  be  traced,  however,  the  original  form  of  the 
Chaldaean  temples. 

The  temples  were  immense  circular  cones  ascended  by  an  external  spiral 
staircase,  on  the  summit  of  which  the  priests  made  their  astronomic  observa- 
tions and  offered  sacrifices.  The  bricks  of  these  structures  are  stamped  with 
the  names  of  the  reigning  kings. 

The  Chaldaean  writing  is  known  as  cuneiform  (wedge-shaped),  because 


CIVILIZATION . 


23 


the  clay  was  marked  while  moist  by  strokes  of  a  stick,  sinking  deeply  at  one 
end  and  leaving  the  mark  narrower  and  lighter  at  the  other.     The  cuneiform 
symbols  are  believed  to  be  modifications  of  a  pictorial  alphabet.     This  form  of 
writing    continued  in  the  Assyrian    period.     In  the 
cellars  of  the  Ninevite  palaces  have  been  found  the 
ancient  libraries  of  the  kings — eight-sided  bricks  cov- 
ered with  cuneiform  inscriptions.    The  Assyrian  lan- 
guage was  related  to  the  Hebrew,  Arab,  and  Phoeni- 
cian, and  is  deciphered  with  considerable  success  by 
the  aid  of  these  languages. 

The  translation  of  the  cuneiform  signs  into 
the  corresponding  sounds  was  first  made  possible  by 
inscriptions  of  the  Persian  period  using  the  cuneiform 
symbols  for  the  Persian  language.  In  these  inscrip- 
tions, certain  frequently  recurring  combinations  were 
presumed  to  be  the  names  of  kings.  Guesses  at  trans- 
lations of  certain  combinations  as  being  the  names  of 
Darius  and  Xerxes,  were  proved  correct  by  a  vase  (now 
in  the  Louvre  at  Paris),  which  contained  a  Persian 
and  an  Egyptian  inscription  side  by  side.  Thus  a  key 
was  obtained  to  the  cuneiform  syllabary.     The  reading 

of  Assyrian  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  writing  was  first  achieved  in  connec- 
tion with  a  rock  inscription  at  Bagistana  in  Media,  dating  from  King  Darius, 
and  repeated  in  three  languages,  Persian,  Medish,  and  Assyrian,  with  the 
same  cuneiform  symbols.  The  matter  of  the  Ninevite  inscriptions  contains 
some  interesting  legends.  They  consist  mainly,  however,  of  royal  chronicles  of 
campaigns  and  conquests. 

The  sculptured,  stone  slabs  with  which  the  brick  walls  of  the  palaces 
were  covered  are  the  most  interesting  of  Assyrian  remains.  Numbers  of  these 
are  in  the  British  Museum,  London.  These  reliefs  furnish  very  vivid  and 
spirited  pictures  of  the  lives  of  the  Assyrian  kings,  their  warfare,  hunting 
excursions,  sacrificial  processions,  etc.  Immense  human-headed  bulls — emblems, 
like  the  Egyptian  Sphinx,  of  combined  wisdom  and  power — flanked  the  palace 
entrances.  The  ruins  of  Babylon  and  of  Persepolis  offer  interesting  examples  of 
a  later  period  of  decorative  sculpture  based  on  the  same  methods.  Arched  city 
gates  and  arched  drains  have  been  excavated  at  and  near  Nineveh.  Beautiful  ex- 
amples of  tile  work,  and  many  ivory  carvings  and  carved  gems  have  also  been 
found. 


Assyrian  Divinity.* 


'■'  Belief  slab  from  Nimroud,  in  the  British  Museum. 


24  CHALD^A    AND    ASSYRIA. 

The  manufactures  especially  famed  were  those  of  textile  fabrics  and 
carpets.  Many  of  the  ornamental  patterns  of  our  own  time  have  been  derived 
from  Babylonian  carpets  and  other  fabrics  through  Greek  transmission.  Em- 
bossing on  metal  was  also  a  highly  developed  art.  The  weights  and  measures 
now  in  use  are  mainly  traced  to  Assyria  and  Babylonia  through  Greek  trans- 
mission. Even  the  English  division  of  the  pound  into  twenty  shillings  goes 
back  to  the  Babylonian  system.  The  English  shilling  is  the  equivalent  of  the 
drachma  of  the  Greeks,  which  was  one-twentieth  of  a  Babylonian  gold  shekel. 
Our  division  of  time  by  hours  of  sixty  minutes  and  minutes  of  sixty  seconds  is 
also  Babylonian  by  Greek  transmission.  In  luxury  and  general  civilization  we 
can  scarcely  rate  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  lower  than  Egypt.  The  system 
of  canals  for  irrigation  was  carried  to  marvelous  perfection. 

The  government  of  the  successive  empires  already  mentioned  was  uni- 
versally despotic,  for  reasons  like  those  which  determined  the  government  of 
Egypt.  The  fertile  valley  was  surrounded  by  warlike  and  poorer  nations  which 
had  to  be  quelled  and  kept  at  bay  by  a  strong  military  and  despotic  power.  The 
government  of  the  subjugated  nations  was  not  especially  oppressive.  They  were 
ruled  by  satraps,  who  were  expected  to  raise  the  required  tribute,  but  the  in- 
ternal affairs  of  the  subject  nations  were  not  disturbed.  Rebellious  populations 
were  punished  by  wholesale  deportations.  The  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  by  Assyria  in  721  b.  c,  and  of  Judaea  by  Babylonia  (Nebuchadnezzar)  in 
586  B.  c,  were  accompanied  by  such  transfers  of  population.  During  the  Persian 
period  the  Jews  were  mildly  treated. 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  CHALD/EO-ASSYRIA. 

The  system  ofwriting  question  sand  answers  in  consecutive  sentences  is  again  recommended. 

What  valley  always  remained  the  seat  of  power,  both  of  Chaldsean  and  Assyrian  rule? 

What  was  the  capital  of  Chaldaea  ?    Of  Assyria  ? 

When  did  the  latter  province  become  head  of  an  empire? 

What  was  the  difference  in  size  between  it  and  its  predecessor  ? 

Into  what  two  empires  was  the  Assyrian  State  finally  divided  ?       When  f 

What  tribe  and  province  reunited  these  empires  ?       When  ? 

What  additions  were  made  ? 

When  was  a  decided  change  in  the  civilization  of  Western  Asia  effected  ?    By  whom  t 

What  was  the  condition  of  art  and  science  with  the  Assyrians  ? 

Why  have  the  buildings  been  so  totally  ruined  ? 

How  do  we  learn  to  know  the  lives  and  occupations  of  the  Assyrians  ? 

To  what  language  was  theirs  related?    In  what  form  are  the  written  remains ? 

What  inscription  corresponds  to  the  Rosetta  Stone  as  key  to  the  cuneiform  writing  ? 

What  nation  united  the  civilizations  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  traded  with  them,  and  transmitted 
their  arts  and  science  to  all  the  natious  around  the  Mediterranean  ?  For  answer  sc^  next 
Bectioij. 


THE    PHCENICIANS. 


HISTORY    AND    CIVILIZATION. 

If  we  examine  the  map,  we  shall  notice  that  direct  commerce 
between  Egypt  and  Assyria  was  obstructed  by  the  deserts  of  Arabia. 
Syria  was  the  country  which  connected  their  civilizations,  and  which 

borrowed  its  own  civilization 
from  its  two  great  neighbors. 
The  peoples  of  Syria  were  nat  • 
urally  the  mediators  and  mer- 
chants engaged  in  exchanging 
the  products  of  the  Nile  valley 
and  of  the  Tigris-Euphrates  val- 
ley. Especially  the  Phoenicians 
of  the  Syrian  coast  were  active 
in  this  exchange;  and,  look- 
ing out  over  the  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean,  they  were 
tempted  to  engage  in  the  trans- 
port of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
luxuries  to  the  then  uncivilized  peoples  of  Greece,  of  Italy,  and  still 
remoter  countries. 

The  Phoenicians  were  experts  in  the  manufacture  of  a  dye — 
the  Tyrian  purple— made  from  a  small  shell-fish.  Each  shell-fish 
yielded  a  drop  of  liquid,  and  the  dye  had  to  be  manufactured  where 
the  shell-fish  were  dredged.  The  supply  of  shell-fish  had  become 
exhausted  on  the  coast  of  Syria.  It  was  still  plentiful  on  the  shores 
of  Greece.     Here,  then,  the  Phoenicians  established  factories  and 


Foundations  of  the  Acropolis  at  Balbek. 


26  THE    PHCENICIANS. 

traded  with  the  Greeks.  In  Cyprus  they  rained  for  copper,  from 
Italy  they  brought  hides,  from  Spain  they  procured  silver,  from 
Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Islands  they  brought  tin.  They  have  also 
left  abundant  traces  of  traffic  in  Ireland  and  in  Scandinavia. 

It  lias  been  held  by  some  historians  that  they  visited  Central  America. 
Before  600  b.  c,  under  the  direction  of  the  Egyptian  king  Necho,  they  circum- 
navigated Africa.  The  dates  of  their  earliest  voyages  must  reach  considerably 
back  of  B.  c.  1300,  for  at  this  time  they  were  already  sailing  to  Ireland  and 
Great  Britain. 

The  great  cities  of  Phoenicia  were  Aradus,  Tripolis,  Berytus  (tlie 
modern  Beyrout),  Tyre,  Sidon,  Acca  (Acre).  The  most  important  Phoenician 
remains  in  Syria  are  at  Balbek — the  foundations  of  its  Acropolis.  The  three 
largest  blocks  of  stone  are  each  64  feet  long,  15  feet  thick,  and  15  feet  high, 
and  each  one  is  estimated  to  weigh  about  1,100  tons.  The  date  of  these  famous 
foundations  is  uncertain,  but  probably  earlier  than  1000  b.  c.  They  are  the 
most  stupendous  existing  monuments  of  Phoenician  science  under  Egyptian 
tuition. 

When  the  Phoenicians  began  their  voyages  the  other  Mediter. 
ranean  nations  were  comparatively  barbarian.  Through  intercourse  with  them 
these  nations — Greeks  and  Italians  first  of  all — obtained  the  basis  of  a  civiliza- 
tion which  they  were  to  transform  and  develop  in  new  ways. 

About  850  B.  C.  the  Phcenicians,  who  had  already  many  colonies  on  the 
northern  shores  of  Africa — in  modern  Tunis,  Algiers,  and  Morocco — founded  a 
new  one,  Carthage  (in  modem  Tunis),  which  became  the  head  of  all  the  others. 
It  acquired  ascendency  over  part  of  Sicily,  over  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  the  coasts 
of  Spain.  After  this  time  the  mother  country  rather  declined,  and  Carthage 
partly  took  its  place.  The  Greeks  had  meantime  become  active  merchants  and 
sailors  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  pushing  out  their  older  teachers.  The 
prosperity  of  the  greatest  Phoenician  city,  Tyre,  was  crippled  by  the  campaigns 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  at  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity  of  the  Jews, 
586  B.  c. 

Chronology  of  PhoBnicia.— Down  to  the  year  b.c.  1000,  and  for  cen 
tunes  before,  the  Phoenicians  were  the  civilizing  force  and  sole  commercial 
power  of  the  Mediterranean.  Under  this  influence  Greece  and  Italy  developed, 
gradually  assuming  independent  importance  after  that  date. 


HISTORY     AND    CIVILIZATION. 


27 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN   EXERCISE  ON  THE  PHCENICIANS. 

Why  were  the  Phoenicians,  among  Eastern  nationis,  especially  devoted  to  traffic  and  com- 
merce ?    Ans.  By  reiason  of  geographical  position. 

What  was  this  position  ? 

With  what  European  nations  did  they  come  in  contact?    How  early? 

Name  some  of  their  colonies. 

Name  the  important  cities  of  the  mother  country. 

How  shall  we  estimate  the  civilization  of  the  Phoenicians?  Am.  By  knowing  that  it  was 
Assyrian  and  Egyptian  amalgamated. 

Wliat  European  nation  was  first  influenced  by  them  ? 

What  manufacture  caused  the  contact  ? 

What  first  brought  the  Greeks  into  hostile  contact  with  the  East  ?    (See  page  28.) 

When  ?    Ans.  About  b.  c.  500. 

How  long  had  a  peaceful  intercourse  lasted  before  this  time  ?  Ans.  From  the  earliest  date 
of  Phoenician  visits  to  Greece. 


SYNCHRONISM  OF  ANCIENT  EASTERN   HISTORY. 


Pyramid  kings  of  Egypt,  before b 

Early  kings  of  Chaldsea,  before 

Phoenician  traflBc  between  these  countries,  before 

Joseph  in  Egypt,  about 

Thothmes  III.  (Obelisks  of  New  York  and  London),  New  Empire. . . . 
Amenophis  III.  (Ruins  of  Luxor,  and  colossal  statues  of  "  Memnon  ".) 

Sethos  I.  (Great  Hall  of  Karnak) 

Ramses  II.  "  "  

Menephtah  (the  Jewish  Exodus) 

Phoenicians  trading  to  Britain *. . , 

Ramses  III.  (Ruins  of  Medinet-Habou,  at  Thebes) 

Rise  of  Assyria  and  decline  of  Egypt,  after. .    

Empire  of  Solomon,  Phoenicians  build  the  Jewish  temple,  about 

Foundation  of  Carthage 

Israelite  captivity  (Assyrian) 

Division  of  Assyria  into  Median  and  Babylonian  Empires 

Africa  circumnavigated,  before 

Jewish  captivity  under  Nebuchadnezzar  of  Babylon , . 

Persian  Empire  unites  the  Median  and  Babylonian  States 

Persian  Cambyses  conquers  Egypt  and  Syria 

Persian  Empire  conquered  by  Greeks 


c.  2000 

2000 

2000 

1750 

1600 

1500 

1400 

1350 

1314 

1300 

1270 

1250 

1000 

850 

721 

625 

600 

586 

555 

525 

383 


*  Still  earlier  control  of  the  Mediterranean  is  implied  by  this  date. 


28  SYNCHRONISM. 

Among  the  foregoing  dates,  the  three  fives  and  three  threes  are  the 
most  importaut.  They  may  be  taken  as  the  turning  points  of  all  ancient  his- 
tory. Cyrus  did  not  erect  the  Persian  Empire  in  a  single  year,  nor  did  Alex- 
ander the  Great  overturn  it  in  a  year.  But  b.  c.  555  and  b.  c.  833  are  as  exact 
as  any  single  dates  would  be,  and  they  are  easily  memorized. 

B.  C.  555,  taken  as  a  central  date  for  the  rise  of  the  Persian  Empire,  may 
recall  also  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  which  so  rapidly  followed  its  rise,  and  the 
fall  of  the  great  Assyrian  State,  which  shortly  preceded.  Before  b.  c.  555,  the 
great  empires  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  Tigris -Euphrates  valley  had  pursued  their 
course  for  centuries  without  progress  and  without  essential  change.  Different 
dynasties  had  replaced  one  another  in  either  valley ;  the  area  of  external  conquest 
had  been  expanded,  diminished,  or  divided;  but  the  East  was  always  the  East. 
Great  material  prosperity,  the  highest  perfection  of  mechanical  art,  fabulous 
luxury,  despotic  power  of  the  chief,  willing  slavery  of  the  masses,  are  always 
the  elements  of  its  history.  But  the  expansion  of  Persia  to  the  shores  of  Asia 
Minor  brought  the  East  into  conflict  with  a  new  system  of  military  organism, 
governmental  institutions,  and  individual  culture — that  of  the  Greeks. 


GREECE. 


THE  GREEKS  OF  LATER  AND  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  attention  of  students  is  generally  diverted  from  the  later  historj 
of  Greeco  by  the  glories  of  its  ancient  civilization,  but  the  Greeks  have,  not- 
withstanding, always  remained  a  highly  refined  and  highly  civilized  people 

since  the  time  of  ancient  great- 
ness. The  misfortunes  of  his- 
tory have  fallen  with  especial 
weight  upon  the  mother  coun- 
try, and  the  relative  insignifi- 
cance of  its  power  among  the 
modern  European  States  some- 
times obscures  the  fact  that  the 
Greeks  are  very  numerous  out- 
side of  their  peninsula,  in  the 
Turkish  territories  of  the  East- 
ern Mediterranean.  They  are 
much  more  influential  in  the 
East  as  individuals  than  the 
power  of  their  state  would  im- 
ply, and  everywhere  noted  for 
success  in  business  and  for  an 
intelligent  use  of  wealth.  In 
polish  and  courtesy  they  are  at  least  the  equals  of  any  other  nation  in  Europe. 
The  dependence  of  the  Turks  on  their  services  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
every  mosque  in  Constantinople  is  the  work  of  a  Greek  architect,  and  they  are 
frequently  employed  in  Turkish  diplomatic  service.  But  the  territory  of  modern 
Greece  has  only  enjoyed  national  independence  from  Turkey  since  1829,  and 
during  the  preceding  four  centuries  it  suffered  more  from  Turkish  misrule  than 
it  has  in  so  short  a  time  been  able  to  retrieve. 

Before  the  Turkish  conquest,  about  a.  d.  1400,  this  territory  was  a 


Athenian  Acropolis.    (From  the  South.) 


30  GREECE. 

portion  of  the  Roman  Empire,  called  at  that  time  the  "Byzantine"  or  " 
Roman."  This  name  is  given  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  East  after  the  loss  of 
its  Western  provinces,  in  the  5th  century  A.  D.  All  countries  of  this  portion  of  the 
empire,  comprising  all  those  afterwards  included  in  European  and  Asiatic 
Turkey,  were  dominantly  Greek  in  population  and  culture  at  the  time  of  the 
Turkish  conquest.  They  were  so  before  they  became  provinces  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  were,  in  fact,  the  countries  from  which  those  of  the  Western 
Mediterranean  had  borrowed  their  civilization,  either  before  or  after  they  had 
become  Roman  as  to  government. 

The  territory  of  the  Greek  peninsula  had  been,  as  it  is  now,  rela 
lively  insignificant  since  the  loss  of  independence  by  its  numerous  petty  states 
in  the  4th  century  B.  c.  But  at  this  time  the  Greeks  had  become  masters  of  the 
wealth  and  luxury  of  the  West  Asiatic  countries  and  of  Egypt.  Therefore  their 
importance  as  individuals  increased  abroad  a  thousandfold  more  than  it  de- 
clined at  home,  so  that  first  the  Eastern  and  then  the  Western  Mediterranean 
was  entirely  permeated  by  their  culture,  which  thus  became  that  of  the  Empire 
of  Rome.  Through  that  medium  especially  it  has  always  influenced  later 
history.  This  influence  of  the  Greeks  is  explained  by  affinities  of  blood  and 
language,  which  allied  them  to  the  other  nations  of  Europe.  It  is  also  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that,  being  by  geographical  position  nearest  to  the  East, 
their  transformation  and  adoption  of  Eastern  civilization  made  them  the 
civilizers  of  the  West  of  Europe.  The  Phoenicians  had  done  much  for  the  West- 
ern Mediterranean  in  material  things  before  Greek  influence  began,  but  after  it 
began  it  gradually  covered  over  or  transformed  the  Phoenician  elements. 

DIVISIONS   OF    RACE   AND    UNGUAGE. 

Europe  in  Pre-historic  Times, — In  passing  from  the  great  empires  of 
Northeastern  Africa  and  Southwestern  Asia  to  the  continent  of  Eurox)e,  it  is 
desirable  to  form  some  conception  of  the  relations  of  its  different  peoples  as  to 
rac*!.  In  describing  the  early  commerce  of  the  Phoenicians  with  the  Mediter- 
rani-an  nations,  the  latter  have  been  spoken  of  as  otherwise  without  civilization. 
This  is  true  in  the  sense  of  luxuries  and  of  many  mechanical  arts.  But  the 
peoples  of  Europe,  though  infinitely  below  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians  in 
material  civilization  before  they  borrowed  this  civilization  through  Phoenician 
commen-e,  had  lived  a  settled  agricultural  life,  with  nionogamic  family  organ- 
ism, l)€'.fore  they  migrated  from  Asia,  and  they  possessed,  b<'fore  entering 
Europt*.  many  interesting  traits  and  institutions,  which  are  studied  by  the 
affimties  of  language. 


DIVISIONS    OF    RACE.  31 

Europe  had  been  previously  peopled  by  a  race  of  which  the  Lapps 
and  Finns  of  the  North  are  a  remnant.  The  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland,  now 
submerged,  but  originally  built  on  piles  in  the  water,  are  remains  of  this  earlier 
time.  This  race  was  replaced  by  the  one  from  which  most  of  the  present  nations 
of  Europe  are  descended.  These  were  generally  established  over  Europe  before 
B.  c,  1500.     They  are  divided  into  families  according  to  languages. 

THE  ARYAN    RACE. 

rirish. 

Welsh 

Celtic  ancestors  of  modem J 

I  Highland  Scotch. 

[  French. 
'  Anglo  Saxons. 
Dutch. 
Germanic  ancestors  of  modern .^  Germans. 


Danes. 

Norwegians  and  Swedes. 
Russians. 
Poles. 
Slavonic  ancestors  of  modem ^  Bohemians 

Servians. 

Bulgarians. 

Latins. 

Greek-Italic  ancestors  of ^  Samnites  and  other  Italian  tribes. 

(^  Greeks. 

(The  early  population  of  Spain  was  partly  Iberian,  partly  Celtic.  The  Iberian 
Jement  continues  in  the  Basques  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  its  language  has  no 
ifEnities  with  others  in  Europe.  The  Turks  and  Hungarians  are  much  later 
arrivals  in  Europe,  also  without  affinity  to  its  other  nations.) 

Besides  these  families  settled  in  Europe,  others  remaining  in  Asia  belonged 
to  the  same  race — the  Phrygians  {Trojans)  and  Armenians  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
Persians  (of  the  province  of  Persia),  and  the  Hindoos.  The  entire  race  is  some- 
times called  the  Indo-European,  because  its  members  are  found  both  in  India 
and  Europe.  It  is  now  more  generally  called  "  Aryan,"  from  Aria,  a  province 
of  the  Iranian  plateau  (modem  Afghanistan),  an  early  centre  of  the  race.  It  is 
from  this  province  that  the  Hindoos  are  thought  to  have  passed,  before  1500  B.  c, 
down  the  Cabul  valley  into  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  whence  they  spread  to  the 
country  of  the  Ganges.     The  Aryan  race  is  also  called  Japhetic. 


32 


GREECE. 


Opposed  to  the  Aryans  in  temperament  and  forms  of  language  are  the 
Semites — namely,  the  Jews,  Phoenicians,  and  other  Syrian  populations,  the 
Arabs,  and  the  Assyrians.  The  languages  of  these  peoples  are  closely  related. 
They  resemble  the  Aryan  languages  in  having  inflections  and  parts  of  speech, 
but  the  stock  of  words  is  different. 

The  Egyptian  language. appears  to  contain  primitive  forms  of  both 
Aryan  and  Semitic  words.     It  is  called  Hamitic. 

The  word  Turanian  is  applied  to  all  the  languages  of  Asia  which  are 
not  Semitic  or  Aryan.  These  languages,  otherwise  very  dissimilar,  resemble 
each  other  in  the  use  of  nouns  for  all  parts  of  speech.  They  are  not  inflected, 
and  belong  to  the  most  primitive  and  undeveloped  form  of  language.  The 
Chinese  is  an  instance;  the  Turkish,  another.  The  word  Turanian  is  formed 
from  Turan,  the  steppe  plateau  of  the  Turcomans,  north  of  the  Iranian  plateau 
of  Persia  and  Afghanistan.  Here  were  the  hereditary  enemies  of  the  ancient 
Aryans,  and  from  their  country  is  named  the  class  of  languages  opposed  to  theirs. 

The  Chaldsean  language  contained  words  of  all  classes— Aryan,  Sem- 
itic, Hamitic,  and  Turanian. 

GREEK    MYTHOLOGY  AND    RELIGION. 
Aryan  Period. — From  the  foregoing  sections  two  cardinal  features  of 


Temple  of  TheseuB,  Athens. 

Greek  history  are  explained.     First,  we  understand  how  the  modifications  of 
Eastern  civilization  made  by  the  Greeks  were  in  time  generally  adopted  by  the 


MYTHOLOGY    AND    RELIGION. 


33 


other  Aryans  of  Europe,  because  the  natural  movement  was  one  from  East  to 
West.  Greece,  being  most  eastern  of  the  South-European  countries,  devel- 
oped first,  and  controlled  the  rest  in  later  ancient  civilization.  The  rise  of  the 
Roman  Empire  was  favorable  to  this  extension  of  Greek  civilization,  and 
spread  it  still  further. 

Secondly,  we  understand  why  studies  in  the  books  of  the  most  ancient  Per- 
sians, the  Zend- Avesta  (written  long  before  the  time  of  the  Persian  Empire),  and 
of  the  Hindoos,  the  Vedas,  throw  an  interesting  light  on  Greek  mythology. 
From  these  books  it  appears  that  the  ancient  Aryans  believed  in  a  constant 
struggle  between  light  and  darkness,  between  the  powers  of  good  and  of  evil 
(teachings  of  the  Zend-Avesta).  They  believed  ( Vedic  hymns)  that  the  thunder- 
storm was  such  a  contest  of  good  and  evil 
spirits,  in  which  the  latter  tried  to  keep  away 
the  fertilizing  rain.  The  lightning  dispelled 
the  evil  spirits,  of  the  black  clouds,  and 
allowed  the  rain  to  fall.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  conception  of  Jupiter  (Greek,  Zeus). 
The  power  of  light,  as  symbolized  in  the 
clear  and  open  sky,  was  personified  in  Min- 
erva (Greek,  Athene).  The  triumph  of  the 
sun  over  the  night  was  personified  in  the  con- 
ception of  Apollo.  The  dawning  sun  was 
conceived  as  a  child  with  wings,  the  origin 
of  the  later  Cupid  {Eros). 

In  later  Greek  paganism,  the  Jupi- 
ter grew  to  be  the  personification  of  su- 
preme power  of  will.  The  Juno  was  his 
consort.  Minerva  grew  to  be  a  personifica- 
tion of  spiritual  enlightenment.  Apollo  also 
became  a  personification  of  cultivation  and 
enlightenment;  of  interest  in  the  beautiful, 
in  music,  and  in  physical  health  and  exer- 
cise. 

Many  forms  of  Greek  mytliology  are  not  to  be.  distinguished  in  the  older 
Aryan  conceptions — Diana,  the  moon-goddess,  the  personification  of  chastity ; 
Vulcan,  the  worker  in  metals  and  artificer ;  Mars,  the  god  of  the  combat  and 
the  warrior ;  Neptune,  the  ffod  of  the  sea  and  the  rivers.  Hercules,  half  hero, 
half  divinity,  was  the  personification  of  physical  energy  devoted  to  civilization. 
Mercury,  originally  the  cloud  divinity,  represented  the  flocks  of  the  sky,  and  so 


Statue  of  Minerva. 
( Vatican  Museum,  Rome.) 


34 


GREECE. 


became  patron  of  flocks  on  earth;  then,  for  this  reason,  the  god  of  wealth 
and  raercliants  in  general ;  the  swift  traveler,  because  the  merchants  were  trav- 
elers, and  therefore  the  messenger  of  the  gods.  Bacchus,  the  harvest  divinity 
and  god  of  the  vine,  was  represented  in  Greek  sculpture  without  intoxication. 
Venus,  the  goddess  of  love,  was  borrowed  from  the  Phoenician  worship  of  the 
Mother-Earth,  and  was  represented  with  much  nobility  and  modesty  by  the 
Greek  sculptors. 

Our  estimate  of  Greek  paganism  depends  entirely  on  the  time  of 
which  we  speak  of  it.  In  the  Aryan  period  it  was  a  childish  but  simple  worship 
of  natural  forces.  In  the  time  of  Homer,  b.  c.  1000,  the  Greeks  were  not  shocked 
by  the  conception  of  deities  moved  by  human  passions  and  weakness.  As  their 
civilization  developed  in  noble  qualities  and  formed  great  characters,  these 
reacted  on  the  conceptions  of  mythology,  idealized  and  purified  them.  A  con- 
ception of  a  supreme  being  formed  itself,  in  which  the  ideals  of  their  mythology 
represented,  at  least  to  certain  Greeks,  various  side?  of  one  divine  power.  When 
the  Greek  states  decayed,  and  life  became  licentious 
and  corrupt,  after  380  b.  c,  the  more  trivial  aspects 
of  the  old  belief  made  it  an  object  of  ridicule  to 
many.  Widened  views  of  the  world  shook  the  faith 
of  the  multitude  in  their  divinities,  without  bring- 
ing them  nearer  to  true  religion,  and  superstition 
was  not  the  less  dominant  because  skepticism  large- 
ly prevailed.  The  Latin  poets  belong  to  a  later 
epoch  than  the  Greek,  and  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Greek  mythology  in  this  later  period. 
The  Latin  names  are  generally  used,  however,  in 
this  chapter,  as  being  the  most  familiar. 

The  Greek  religion  was  not  represented  by  a 
distinct  priestly  caste,  but  the  knowledge  and 
practice  of  its  rites  and  observances  were  heredi- 
tary in  certain  families.  The  temples  were  State 
sanctuaries,  which  served  also  as  the  civic  treasuries.  They  were  also  the 
museums  of  art,  for  the  most  important  stutucs,  pictun  s,  and  other  works  of 
art  were  those  dedicated  in  them,  and  from  century  to  century  the  store  of  these 
was  constantly  increasing.  Of  all  (iroek  temples,  that  dedicated  to  the  Athe- 
nian hero  king.  Tiieseus,  is  the  best  preserved,  and  serves  as  a  type  by  which 
other  ruins  may  be  restored  in  imagination.     It  was  erected  about  460  B.  c. 


Head  of  the  Apollo  Belvedere." 
{Vadcan  Museum.) 


*  The  Bc'Ivederf  Apollo  statue  has  lti»  name  from  the  Vatican  Belvedere  Garden,  arranged 
by  Popr  .IiilliH  n  MS  a  stndio  for  sonlptors,  in  1606. 


EARLY    HISTORY.  35 

EARLY    HISTORY. 

Early  Settlements. — No  records  exisfc  of  the  migrations  by 
which  Greece  was  settled.  The  Phrygian  highlands  of  Northwest- 
ern Asia  Minor,  the  country  about  Troy,  and  the  whole  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  are  found  peopled,  at  a  later  day,  by  Greeks.  Part  of 
this  population  returned  from  Greece,  but  this  country  was  also  the 
one  from  which  the  migrations  started.  By  way  of  Thrace  and 
Macedonia,  and  by  way  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  the  pas- 
sage was  an  easy  one.  Colossal  fortifications  are  found  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  elsewhere  of  the  pre-historic  time.  The  early  settlers 
are  named  Pelasgians  by  the  Greek  historians. 

The  first  authentic  fact  of  Greek  history  is  a  movement  from 
the  north  central  mountains  of  Greece  (Doris),  about  B.  c.  1100,  by 
which  the  more  civilized  peoples  of  the  South  were  subjugated.  This 
movement  is  known  as  the  Doric  migration,  and  the  Greeks,  from 
this  time  on,  are  known  as  divided  into  the  two  tribes  of  Dorians 
and  lonians.  A  third  tribe,  the  iEolian,  simply  represents  the  con- 
tinued existence,  in  some  parts,  of  the  older  stock,  otherwise  divided 
into  Doric  and  Ionic.  The  Dorians  were  the  hardier  and  rougher 
people.  Their  most  important  and  influential  settlements  were 
Argos  and  the  province  of  Argolis;  Sparta,  and  the  province  of 
Laconia,  all  in  Peloponnesus. 

The  Ionic  Greeks  were  those  of  the  eastern  shores  of  Greece, 
of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  the  shore  of  Asia  Minor 
(Ionia  proper).  The  province  of  Attica,  capital  Athens,  was  the 
leading  Ionic  state  of  Greece  proper.  On  the  shore  of  Asia  Minor, 
Miletus,  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  and  Phocoea  were  important  Ionic  towns. 
The  lonians,  being  the  maritime  Greeks,  as  distinguished  from  the 
hardier  Dorian  mountaineers,  were  more  vivacious  and  subtle.  Open, 
by  temper  and  position,  to  the  influence  of  Asiatic  civilization,  they 
were  also  more  refined. 

Siege  of  Troy.  --The  disturbances  of  the  Doric  migrations  led 
to  a  general  colonial  movement  towards  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor, 


36 


GREECE 


whence  the  ancestors  of  the  Greeks  had  come.  The  siege  of  Troy 
was  doubtless  an  actual  historic  event  of  this  colonial  movement. 
It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  poems  of  Homer 
founded  on  this  siege — the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey — are  historic 
accounts.  They  idealize  and  celebrate  the  period  of  colonial  con- 
quest, making  the  siege  of  Troy  a  theme  for  depicting  the  heroic 
exploits  and  warlike  valor  of  the  time. 

Homer  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  1000  b.  c.  His  place  of  birth  is 
disputed.  He  was  certainly  au  Ionic  Greek.  The  poems  attributed  to  him  are 
the  first  and  greatest  works  of  Greek  literature.  The  ' '  Iliad  "  describes  an 
episode  of  the  siege  of  Troy — the  quarrel  of  the  heroes  Agamemnon  and  Achilles. 
The  "  Odyssey  "  describes  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses,  the  wisest  of  the  Greeks, 
returning  fiom  the  siege. 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   GREECE   AND   ITS  COLONIES. 

The  Peloponnesian  province  of  Laeonia,  conquered  and  ruled  by 
the  Doric  Spartans,  is  bordered  on  the  w<  st  by  Messenia.     Sparta,  in  the  8th 

and  7th  centuries  u.  c,  subjugated 
this  province. 

Above  Messenia  lies  Elis. 
Its  capital,  Olympia,  was  the  seat  of 
the  famous  gymnastic  games  held 
every  four  years  after  b.  c.  776.  This 
year  is  called  the  first  Olympiad,  and 
the  Greeks  reckoned  time  by  this  era. 
Great  importance  was  attached  to 
this  gymnastic  festival,  because  the 
military  protection  of  each  indepen- 
dent Greek  state  was  confided  to  the 
personal  valor  of  the  richer  and  more 
highly  born  citizens.  Gymnastics 
were,  therefore,  an  essential  part  of 
state  education. 

In  connection  with  these  bodily 
exercises,  the  art  of  sculpture  be- 
came a  natural  expression  of  Greek  life.     At  Olympia  might  be  seen,  in  later 
antiquity,  over  three  thousand  statues  of  athletes.   Here  was  tlie  temple  which 


Jupiter  Temple  at  Olympia. 
(Restoration.) 


GEOGRAPHY 


37 


contained  the  famous  colossal  Jupiter  by  Phidias,  the  greatest  Greek  sculptor 
(5th  century  b.  c).  Like  other  important  temple  statues,  it  was  made  of  ivory 
and  gold — ivory  for  the  flesh,  gold  for  the  drapery.  This  statue  still  existed  in 
the  5th  century  after  Christ. 

The  province  of  Achaia  (Northern  Peloponnesus)  was  not  an  impor- 
tant state  until  after  the  overthrow  of  Greek  freedom  (b.  c.  330),  when  the 
Achaian  league  of  cities  became  prominent. 

Sicyon  and.  Corinth  were  important  Doric  states.  The  latter,  being  an 
important  centre  of  Mediterranean  commerce,  was  famed  for  great  wealth. 

The  province  of  Argolis  brings  us  back  once  more  to  the  northern 
border  of  Lacouia.  Argos  was  the  lead- 
ing city,  heading  the  most  important 
state  of  Greece  down  to  b.  c.  777.  Here 
was  the  colossal  gold  and  ivory  Juno  by 
Polyclitus  (5th  century  b.  c),  of  which 
the  Ludovisi  Juno  in  Rome  is  a  copy. 
Mycenae  and  Tirynth,  strongholds  of  the 
Pelasgian  period,  have  their  immense 
walls  still  standing.  At  Nemea  and  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  gymnastic  games 
were  held. 

Arcadia,  the  central  province  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  was  also  the  least 
important.  It  was  inhabited  mainly 
by  shepherds,  furnishing  the  adjective 
"  Arcadian  "  to  later  poets. 

Attica.— Beyond  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth  lay  first  the  little  state  of  Me- 
garis,    then    the    Peninsula    of   Attica. 

Opposite  the  Pirseus,  the  seaport  of  Athens,  lies  the  island  of  Salamis,  where 
the  Persian  fleet  was  defeated  in  b.  c.  480.  On  the  opposite  side  of  Attica  is 
the  field  of  Marathon,  where  the  Persian  army  was  defeated  in  b.  c.  490.  The 
island  of  Euboea  stretches  above  this  coast,  with  the  important  cities  of  Ere- 
tria  and  Chalcis. 

BoBOtia. — Above  Attica  is  the  low  and  marshy  province  of  Bceotia.  Its 
inhabitants  were  proverbial  for  a  dull  and  heavy  temperament.  But  Plataea, 
on  its  southern  border,  was  a  quick  witted  and  public-spirited  community. 
Thebes  was  the  important  city  of  Bceotia.  Leuctra  and  Choeronea  were  sites  of 
important  battles  in  the  4th  century  b.  c. 


Juno  of  the  LuucMbi  Villa,  Eome. 


38  GREECE. 

Fhocis. — Next  to  the  west,  along  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  lies  Phocis,  with 
the  famed  Apollo  Sanctuary  of  Delphi,  where  the  Pythian  games  were  cele- 
brated. Here  was  the  leading  Oracle  of  the  Greeks.  A  priestess  seated  on  a 
tripod  placed  over  a  cleft  in  the  earth,  from  which  vapors  rose  casting  her  into 
trance,  gave  disjointed  and  fragmentary  answers  to  the  questions  which  were 
put  to  her  by  the  priests  on  behalf  of  those  consulting  the  oracle.  These 
answers,  when  reduced  to  writing,  were  generally  enigmatic,  containing  a 
double  meaning.  But  the  advice  of  the  Delphic  priests  had  also  great  weight, 
md  for  centuries  their  influence  was  exerted  for  the  good  of  Greece. 

Locris  and  Doris. — On  either  side  of  Phocis  were  the  two  provinces  of 
Locris.    On  the  northwestern  side  of  Phocis  is  Doris; 

Northern  and  Western  Provinces.— From  the  northern  Locris 
we  pass  into  Thessaly,  along  the  sea  shore,  by  the  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
where  three  hundred  Spartans  died  for  the  liberties  of  Greece,  resisting  the 
strength  of  the  entire  Persian  Empire,  b.  c.  480.  The  large  province  of  Thes 
saly  was  never  important  in  Greek  history.  Here  is  the  battlefield  of  Pharsalia, 
where  Pompey  was  defeated  by  Julius  Caesar.  The  Avestem  provinces  of 
Epirus,  Acamania  and  .^tolia,  are  also  unimportant.  On  the  northeast  prom- 
ontory of  Acarnania,  off  Actium,  the  Roman  Antony  was  defeated  by  Augustus. 

This  rugged  and  barren  western  side  of  Greece  looks  over  to  the  almost 
equally  unimix)rtant  eastern  side  of  Italy.  The  leading  states  of  the  two 
countries  were  turned  away  from  each  other,  and  thus,  as  well  as  by  position 
further  west,  Italy  was  destined  to  later  development  than  Greece. 

The  mountain  chain  which  divides  Greece  from  Macedonia  terminates  on 
the  east  in  Mount  Olympus,  the  fabled  home  of  the  gods. 

Climate. — From  these  mountains  to  the  southern  capes  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus the  distance  is  about  850  miles ;  but  between  these  limits  are 
comprined  all  the  changes  of  climate  and  production  found  otherwise  be- 
tween the  climate  of  North  Germany  and  that  of  extreme  Southern  Italy.  The 
mountain  chains  which  separate  the  various  provinces  destined  Greece  to  be 
the  home  of  a  series  of  independent  states.  Its  variety  of  independent  and 
individual  life  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  monotony  of  the  Eastern  civiliza- 
tions. The  deeply  indented  coasts  and  multitude  of  surrounding  islands  made 
navigation  a  necessary  art.  A  spirit  of  enterprise  was  early  developed,  which, 
in  the  increase  of  ]x>pulation,  led  to  the  establishment  of  almost  countless 
colonies  beyond  the  limits  of  the  mother  country. 

The  Colonies.— Besides  the  colonial  cities  along  the  shore  of  Asia  Minor, 
of  which  Smyrna  still  exists,  and  the  important  islands  along  this  coast  of 
LesboB,  ChioB,  Samoe,  and  Rhodes,  there  were  settlements  on  the  promontories 


GEOGRAPHY.  39 

of  Chalcidice,  jutting  out  from  Macedonia.  Especially  important  here  were 
Olynthus  and  Potidiea.  On  the  Bosphorus  was  situated  Byzantium  (Constanti- 
nople). On  the  Black  Sea,  Odessa,  Sinope,  and  Trebizond  still  remain  from  the 
multitude  of  cities  which  lined  these  coasts.  In  Crete  and  Rhodes  entirely,  in 
Cyprus  partially,  the  earlier  Phoenician  settlements  gave  way  to  Greek. 

On  the  African  coast  of  Cyrene,  west  of  Egypt,  were  important  Greek 
colonies.  The  whole  coast  of  Southern  Italy  was  lined  with  them  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  was  called  Magna  Grecia  (Great  Greece).  Naples  was  the  most 
important.  From  Sybaris  our  word  "sybarite  "is  derived.  Crotona  was  the 
home  of  Pythagoras,  the  philosoi)her  of  the  6th  century.  On  the  island  of 
Sicily,  where  the  Phoenicians  gradually  encroached  on  the  western  part,  the 
eastern  half  belonged  to  the  Greeks.  Syracuse  was  the  most  important  city, 
the  home  of  Archimedes,  Greek  geometrician  and  mechanician  of  the  3d  century 
B.  c.  The  eastern  coast  of  Spain  and  the  southern  coast  of  France  had  several 
colonies.  Marseilles  was  the  leading  Greek  colony  of  this  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. From  this  port  it  is  thought  that  the  Greek  navigator  Pytheas  reached 
Iceland  in  the  4th  century  b.  c.  It  is  certain  that  he  sailed  far  to  the  north  of 
Great  Britain. 

All  the  colonies  above  mentioned  were  established  before  555  b.  c.  Greece 
at  this  time  controlled  the  commerce  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  and  dis- 
puted with  Carthage  that  of  the  West. 

SPARTA  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE  IN  GREECE. 

The  great  la^v-giver  of  the  Spartans  was  Lycurgus,  9th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  His  peculiar  institutions  are  best  understood  by  noting 
that  this  tribe  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  earher  population  of  La- 
conia,  which  they  held  in  subjection,  and  from  which  they  had 
taken  the  fertile  lands  of  the  Eurotas  valley.  Large  numbers  of  the 
conquered  population  had  sunk  to  the  condition  of  helots,  or  slaves. 
They  were  treated  with  great  severity,  and  none  of  them  had  polit- 
ical rights. 

The  Spartans  were  the  landed  aristocracy.  No  intermarriage 
with  other  Greeks  was  allowed  to  destroy  the  purity  of  their  blood. 
Each  individual  Spartan  was  a  nobleman.  But  to  maintain  this 
ascendency  of  conquest,  of  government,  of  birth,  and  of  possessions, 
each  Spartan  was  bound  to  submit  himself  to  the  strictest  military 


40 


GREECE 


discipline.  He  was  a  warrior  for  life.  Taken  from  the  mothei-'s 
care  at  the  age  of  seuen,  he  was  thenceforward  subject  to  the  disci- 
pline of  the  camp.  The  men  messed  together  at  all  times,  like 
soldiers.  Their  fare  was  meagre  and  plain.  The  gymnastic  exer- 
cises were  obligatory,  even  on  the 
women.  The  discipline,  endurance, 
and  bravery  of  these  men  were  be- 
yond description.  They  entered  bat- 
tle as  if  on  parade,  and  remained 
victors  or  dead  on  the  field.  The 
self-confidence  of  the  Spartans  was 
supreme,  but  it  did  not  lead  them 
into  a  career  of  conquest,  or  to 
dream  of  general  dominion.  Their 
discipline  could  only  be  preserved 
by  isolation.  Spartans  were  there- 
fore not  allowed  to  travel  or  to  carry 
on  commerce.  Frequent  battles 
with  the  same  state  were  avoided, 
lest  their  enemies  might  learn  vic- 
Wars  which  would  entail  too  long  an 
Even  music  was  controlled  bv 


Early  Greek  Warrior.* 


tory  from  frequent  defeats. 

absence  from  home  were  avoided. 

law,  and  care  was  taken  that  no  languishing  and  tender  melodies 

should  effeminate  the  people. 

Government. — Royal  ambition  was  not  allowed  to  carry  the 
state  out  of  its  accustomed  grooves.  Hence  the  peculiar  and  other- 
wise unknown  institution  of  a  double  monarchy.  One  king  was  to 
check  and  cross  the  plans  of  the  other  if  he  attempted  political 
innovations.  The  mutual  jealousy  of  the  two  kings  kept  them  busy, 
and  prevented  them  from  carrying  out  plans  for  individual  aggran- 
dizement. But  monarchy  was  the  form  of  government,  because, 
the  army  and  state  being  inseparable,  permanent  genera's  were 


*  From  a  Hmall  bronze  statuette  in  Berlin,  found  at  Dodona,  in  Epirus.    A  spear 
imagined  as  held  In  the  right  hand. 


to  be 


SPARTA    AND    ITS     INFLUENCE.  41 

required.     The  kings  were  also  controlled  by  an  elective  commitief) 
of  five  state  officers  called  Epliors. 

Influence  on  other  States. — The  military  power  of  the  Spar- 
tans, their  wariness,  caution,  and  conservative  self-restraint,  made 
them  finally  the  arbiters  of  the  Greek  states,  after  the  decline  of  Argos, 
B.  c.  777.  Their  mediation  and  interference  regulated  the  relations 
of  the  other  civic  communities.  The  Spartan  rigidity,  narrowness, 
and  exclusiveness  were  peculiar  to  themselves,  but  their  example 
sustained,  among  the  other  Greek  states,  the  ideal  of  a  government 
in  which  the  wealtliier  citizens  bore  its  burdens,  were  its  protectors 
and  defenders,  subject  to  military  discipline,  fighting  in  the  ranks 
as  private  soldiers,  and  training  their  bodies  from  youth,  by  con- 
stant physical  exercise,  to  the  public  service.  Education  was  there- 
fore universally  controlled  by  the  state.  The  idea  of  citizenship,  of 
political  rights,  was  associated  with  that  of  personal  military  serv- 
ice, and  connected  with  hereditary  birth.  Large  numbers  of  slaves 
were  found  in  all  Greek  communities,  but  outside  of  Sparta  they 
were  humanely  treated.  The  dimensions  of  the  Greek  states  were, 
from  a  modern  standpoint,  absurdly  small — generally  consisting  only 
of  a  single  city,  with  the  surrounding  territory.  The  methods  and 
ideals  of  Greek  self-government  were  inconsistent  with  large  dimen- 
sions, because  the  citizens  managed  their  own  affairs  in  personal 
concourse.  Government  by  deputy — ** representative  government" 
— was  unknown.  But  the  small  scale  of  the  Greek  states  was  favor- 
able to  the  development  and  training  of  individual  <}haracter. 

ATHENS  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE  IN  GREECE. 

Hereditary  monarchy,  the  form  of  government  in  the  time  of 
Homer,  was  gradually  abandoned  in  the  Greek  states,  with  the 
peculiar  exception  noted  of  Sparta.  The  last  important  Greek  king 
was  Pheidon,  of  Argos,  b.  c.  777. 

Aristocratic  republics  then  became  the  rule.  With  the  in- 
crease of  commerce,  and  the  rise  to  wealth  of  non-landholding  and 


42  GREECE. 

unprivileged  inhabitants  of  the  republics,  this  rule  of  the  old  aris- 
tocracies was  often  found  oppressive.  This  feeling  became  general 
in  the  6th  century  b.  c.  Down  to  this  time  the  foundation  of  col- 
onies had  been  the  vent  and  outlet  of  such  discontent,  but  the 
coasts  open  to  this  enterprise  had  all  been  occupied.  Resort  was 
now  had,  sometimes,  to  concessions  of  political  rights  to  hitherto 
unprivileged  members  of  a  community. 

The  Greek  Tyrants. — In  other  cases,  some  member  of  the 
aristocracy  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  revolt  of  the  lower  orders, 
and  founded  a  "Tyranny."  This  meant  simply  a  one-man  power, 
which  represented  the  popular  side  against  the  aristocracies.  But 
the  Tyrants  were  always  bitterly  hated  by  the  order  which  they 
betrayed.  An  odious  significance  was  gradually  attached  to  the 
term,  from  the  arbitrary  acts  and  cruelties  into  which  the  Tyrants 
were  forced  in  order  to  keep  their  power.  Especially  famed  and 
odious  were  Polycrates,  Tyrant  of  Samos  (6th  century),  and  Diony- 
sius.  Tyrant  of  Syracuse  (4th  century). 

In  Athens  both  expedients  above  mentioned  were  resorted  to. 
Hence,  in  the  6th  century  b.  c,  the  Eeforms  of  Solon  and  the 
**  Tyranny"  of  Pisistratus. 

Solon,  known  as  one  of  the  wisest  of  the  Greeks,  was  a  member  of 
the  privileged  class,  but  sought  to  still  the  dissensions  with  which  his 
country  was  distracted  by  concessions  to  the  democratic  spirit.  He 
based  the  voting  privilege  and  the  obligations  of  state  service,  which 
were  inseparable  in  Greek  conception,  on  the  possession  of  property 
instead  of  on  descent  from  the  already  privileged  citizens.  But  the 
newly  admitted  citizens  now  became  also  hereditary  transmitters 
of  the  citizenship.  A  wealthy  non-resident  of  Attica  could  not  be- 
come an  Athenian  citizen,  or  the  father  of  citizens,  by  moving 
there. 

The  people  were  divided  into  four  classes,  according  to  amount 
of  property.  All  could  vote  for  officers  of  state,  but  eligibility  to 
the  higher  offices  was  confined  to  the  higher  classes.  The  reforms 
of  Solon  also  attempted  to  alleviate  the  economic  distress  which  was 


ATHENS     AND    ITS    INFLUENCE.  43 

one  cause  of  trouble.  But  this  distress  kept  the  poorer  population 
dissatisfied  with  Solon's  measures,  while  his  own  order  was  dissatis- 
fied with  the  amount  of  concession. 

Fisistratus. — Of  the  three  parties  in  the  state — reactionists, 
moderates  (Solon's  party),  and  radicals — the  latter  gained  the  lead- 
ership under  Pisistratus,  one  of  the  privileged  class,  who  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  democracy,  and  became  "Tyrant"  in  b.  c.  560. 
He  ruled  with  wisdom  and  glory,  and  did  not  disturb  the  legislation 
of  Solon,  who  thus  was  the  founder  of  the  democratic  constitution 
of  Athens.  But  the  odium  attaching  to  a  one-man  power,  which 
the  personality  of  Pisistratus  had  conquered,  ruined  the  government 
of  his  sons,  who  succeeded  him  after  B.  c.  527.  His  son  Hipparchus 
was  slain,  and  his  son  Hippias  was  expelled  and  took  refuge  with  the 
Persians,  B.  c.  510. 

The  reforms  of  Clisthenes  now  increased  the  democratic  tendencies  of 
Solon's  constitution.  Among  his  institutions  was  the  device  of  Ostracism,  so 
named  from  ostrakon,  the  oyster-shell,  on  which  the  vote  was  written  when  the 
measure  was  made  use  of.  Ostracism  was  banishment  without  other  penalty 
and  without  disgrace.  Whenever  a  name  was  proposed  for  ostracism,  six 
thousand  votes  cast  in  favor  of  the  measure  required  the  person  named  to  leave 
Athens  for  ten  years.  It  was  a  device  (showing  the  small  scale  of  Greek  pol 
itics),  by  which  the  power  of  a  single  man  to  overthrow  the  state  and  unduly 
control  it  was  to  be  restrained.  It  was  applied  against  men  of  unquestioned 
patriotism  when  their  policy  was  antagonistic  to  the  will  of  six  thousand  citi- 
zens.    It  was  also  a  device  to  forestall  the  re  establishment  of  a  "  Tyranny." 

The  Spartans  viewed  with  disfavor  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  Athe- 
nians, as  tending  to  sap  the  conservative  spirit  and  traditional  institutions  of 
Greece.  The  spread  of  democratic  tendencies  would  endanger  Spartan  ascen- 
dency in  Greek  politics,  and  threaten  their  own  power  in  Laconia.  Unsuccess- 
ful in  overt  attempts  to  cripple  Athenian  democracy,  they  constantly  main- 
tained relations  with  the  reactionary  party  in  Athens.  Thus  Athens  and 
Sparta,  as  the  heads  of  democratic  and  aristocratic  tendencies  in  Greece,  stood 
to  each  other  in  a  permanently  hostile  attitude.  The  Athenians  disliked  the 
narrowness  and  lack  of  refinement  in  the  Spartan  ;  the  Spartans  disliked  the 
levity  and  fickleness  of  a  people  constantly  engaged  in  tinkering  their  constitu- 
tion and  advocating  liberties  which  the  Spartans  could  not  themselves  bestow 


44 


GREECE. 


without  self-destruction.  Behind  this  opposition  of  policy  was  a  difference  of 
fundamental  character — that  of  the  Doric  and  the  Ionic  Greek — the  contest 
between  an  old  land-holding  and  a  new  mercantile  spirit,  between  the  spirit  of 
Doric  solidity  and  conservative  indifference  to  luxuries  and  the  Ionic  taste  for 
beauty  and  artistic  refinements.  For  centuries  the  Doric  spirit  had  dominated 
and  controlled  the  Ionic — the  latter  was  now  to  take  its  turn.  At  this  moment, 
B.  c.  500,  the  outbreak  of  the  Persian  Wars  apparently  reconciled  and  broke 
down  these  oppositions  of  policy  and  taste  in  a  common  resistance  to  the 
foreign  foe. 

THE   WARS   WITH    PERSIA— IONIC    REVOLT.    500    B.C. 

The  Lydian  Empire. — Between  the  Greek  cities  which  lined 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  river  Halys,  stretched,  in  earUer 
antiquity  than  the  time  we  have  reached,  the  Empire  of  Lydia. 

This  empire  (capital  8ardes)  grew  out 
of  the  smaller  province  of  the  same 
name,  formed  by  the  valleys  of  the 
Hermus    and    the   Cayster.     (At  the 
mouths  of    these   rivers    lie   Smyrna 
and  Ephesus.)     It  was  a  vassal  state 
of  Assyria  after  1224  b.  c,  and  exer- 
cised an  important  influence  on  the 
Greeks  in  earlier  antiquity,  as  a  chan- 
nel   by    which    Assyrian    civilization 
acted  on   them.     But  it  was  also  a 
buffer,  protecting  the  Asiatic  Greeks 
from   direct    contact   with    the   great 
powers  of  the  Tigris-Eupli rates  valley. 
In    the    decline    of   Assyrian 
power,   about   150  years   before  tlie 
fall  of  Nineveli,*  Lydia  became  independent.    The  Medes  attempted 
to  conquer  it,  but  made  peace,  GIO  b.  c,  by  a  treaty  which  was 
observed  till  the  overthrow  of  the  Median  Empire  by  Persia.     The 


Qreek  Vabe. 
{Combat  of  Greeks  and  Persians.) 


*  ^amc  the  date. 


WARS    WITH    PERSIA.  45 

great  wealth  of  Lydia  was  gold.  The  fabled  wealth  of  King  Midas,* 
and  the  actual  wealth  of  King  Croesus,  are  equally  famed. 

Croesus  was  king  of  Lydia  when  Cyrus  the  Great  of  Persia 
began  his  career  of  conquest.  Croesus  had  brought  the  Greek  cities 
of  the  Asiatic  coast  into  a  species  of  dependence,  but  his  relations 
with  them  were  friendly.  On  a  sudden  the  Lydian  Empire  of 
Croesus  was  overwhelmed  by  Cyrus,  and  the  barrier  between  the 
crushing  power  of  the  great  Asian  empire  and  the  Greeks  was 
broken  down. 

The  Greek  cities  of  the  Asiatic  coast  were  forced  to  accept 
Tyrants  (of  Greek  blood),  who  obeyed  the  Persian  satraps,  and 
kept  their  own  despotisms  in  existence  by  Persian  protection.  The 
liberty  and  power  of  the  greatest  and  richest  Greek  colonial  cities, 
surpassing  in  wealth  those  of  the  mother  country,  were  at  the  mercy 
of  Asiatics.  The  king  of  Persia  could  not  be  ignorant  of  the  smolder- 
ing discontent  and  uncertain  obedience.of  the  Ionic  cities.  Meantime, 
Cyrus  died  in  529,  after  conquering  Babylon  in  538.  His  son 
Cambyses,  529-522,  had  added  Phoenicia  and  Egypt  to  the  empire. 

The  third  king  of  Persia,  Darius,  first  turned  attention  to  the 
conquest  of  the  lower  Indus  valley,  and  then  directed  his  energies 
to  the  West.  Until  the  power  of  the  mother  country  wa^  humbled, 
the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  could  not  be  regarded  as  securely  con- 
quered. Thrace  and  Macedonia,!  which  lay  between  the  boundary 
of  the  Persian  Empire  on  the  Hellespont  and  Bosphorus,  and  the 
states  of  Greece,  must  be  first  annexed.  This  was  the  object  of  the 
Scythian  expedition  of  Darius,  508  B.  c. 

Darius  entered  Thrace  with  an  army  of  800,000  men,  and 
then  turned  north  to  the  Danube  to  secure  this  frontier.  The 
country  of   the   wandering  and  barbaric    Scythians    beyond    the 


*  The  fable  relates  that  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia  (a  province  of  the  Lydian  Empire),  requested 
of  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  that  all  he  touched  might  turn  to  gold.  The  favor  was  granted,  but 
because  his  food  and  drink  were  turned  to  gold  he  was  starving.  Midas  was  obliged  to 
beg  that  the  granted  favor  might  be  revoked. 

t  Map,  p.  28. 


46  GREECE. 

Danube  was  entered,  in  order  to  teach  these  peoples  to  respect  the 
power  of  Persia  and  forestall  predatory  incursions  on  the  new  prov- 
inces. A  century  before,  the  Scythians  had  ravaged  Western  Asia, 
contributing  greatly  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Assyrian  State.  This 
campaign  was  intended  also  to  take  vengeance  for  this  invasion. 
Darius  crossed  the  Danube,  just  above  its  delta,  on  a  bridge  of 
boats  constructed  for  him  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  who  had  been 
forced  to  join  the  expedition  with  600  ships. 

The  Athenian  Miltiades,  who  ruled  a  state  of  his  own  on  the 
Thracian  Chersonesus  (the  promontory  bordering  the  Hellespont), 
proposed  to  destroy  the  bridge  during  the  absence  of  the  Persian 
army  in  the  wilds  of  Scythia,  and  by  thus  causing  the  destruction 
of  Darius  to  secure  the  liberties  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks.  This  plan 
was  crossed  and  defeated  by  the  Greek  satrap  of  Miletus,  Histiaeus. 
Miltiades  made  his  escape  to  Athens. 

Histiceus  was  rewarded,  on  the  safe  return  of  Dariu^,  by  the 
governorship  of  Myrcinus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon,  the  extreme 
frontier  of  the  Persians  in  Europe.  The  son-in-law  of  Histiaeus, 
named  Aristagoras.  was  made  governor  of  Miletus.  There  were  rich 
gold  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  Myrcinus,  and  the  power  of  Histiaeus 
grew  rapidly.  It  threatened  to  assume  a  position  of  independence, 
which  would  make  Myrcinus  rather  a  barrier  between  the  Persians 
and  the  European  Greeks  than  a  stepping-stone  to  further  conquest. 
Histia3us  was  therefore  summoned  to  the  Persian  Court  at  Susa, 
and  was  detained  there  in  a  sort  of  honorable  captivity.  He  then 
sent  messages  to  his  brother-in-law,  AristagOras,  to  incite  a  revolt 
of  the  Ionic  Greeks. 

Aristagoras  himself  was  disposed  to  this  step,  because  he  had 
failed  in  iin  attack  on  the  Island  of  Naxos,  owing  to  the  jealousy  of 
the  Persian  satrap  of  Asia  Minor.  Aristagoras  seized  the  Tyrants  of 
the  Greek  cities  who  were  with  his  armament,  delivered  them  up  to 
the  people,  and  proclaimed  democracy  among  the  Asiatic  Greeks, 
500  B.  c.  He  then  immediately  sailed  over  to  Greece,  to  secure  help 
against  the  Persians.    Sparta  had  no  ships,  and  had  never  risked  so 


PERSIAN    WARS. 


47 


distant  and  doubtful  an  undertaking,  nor  did  the  troubles  of  lonians 
give  her  much  concern.  She  refused  assistance.  The  Athenians 
gave  twenty  ships  and  the  Eretrians  of  Euboea  gave  five. 

An  expedition  of  the  Ionic  G-reeks,  with  the  allies  thus  sent 
over,  marched  on  Sardes,  took,  and  burned  it.  On  their  retreat  to 
the  coast  they  were  defeated  by  the  Persians.  The  Athenians  and 
Eretrians  sailed  home.  The  revolt  of  the  lonians  continued,  and 
was  now  utterly  crushed  by  Persia  (by  b.  c.  494).  The  next  step 
was  to  take  revenge  on  Athens  for  its  defiance  of  the  "  Great  King  " 
and  the  burning  of  Sardes. 


PERSIAN    WARS— 500-480    B.C. 

The  first  expedition  of  the  Persians  moved  by  way  of  Thrace, 
in  49,2,  attended  by  a  large  fleet.  In  reunding  Mount  Athos  (penin- 
sula of  Chalcidice)  the  fleet  was  nearly  destroyed  by  a  terrible 
storm,  and  the  land  forces,  also 
much  annoyed  by  the  Thra- 
cians,  turned  back  on  account 
of  this  disaster. 

^^Ih  490  a  second  expe- 
dition of  about  200,000  men, 
with  600  ships,  sailed  from  the 
Bay  of  Issus,  at  the  angle 
where  the  coasts  of  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor  join  each  other,  by 
way  of  the  islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, into  the  strait  between 
Attica  and  Euboea.  Eretria  was  destroyed,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
enslaved.  The  Persians  then  landed,  for  the  march  on  Athens,  on 
the  plains  of  Marathon.  Messengers  had  been  dispatched  from  Athens 
for  the  aid  of  Sparta,  which  was  promised  but  delayed.  The  Athe- 
nian army  of  10,000  heavy  armed  infantry,  with  1,000  Platseans,  was 
posted  on  the  heights  protecting  the  road  to  Athens.   They  were  com- 


Acropolis  at  Athens.    (Restoration.) 
{From  the  West.) 


48  GREECE. 

manded  by  ten  generals,  heading  respectiye  divisions  of  the  army, 
and  each  taking  turn  for  a  day  in  command  of  the  whole. 

Among  these  generals  "was  Miltiades  (page  46).  For  sev- 
eral days  the  armies  watched  each  other,  the  Persians  wishing  to 
tempt  the  Greeks  down  into  the  plain,  where  the  immense  superi- 
ority of  the  Persian  numbers  might  easily  overwhelm  them,  and  also 
because  their  best  forces  were  cavalry,  which  could  not  be  used  on 
broken  and  hilly  ground.  On  the  day  which  gave  Miltiades  the 
command,  he  marshaled  his  army  at  dawn  for  descent  into  the 
plain. 

While  Eastern  armies  placed  their  great  dependence  on  light 
cavalry  and  archers,  the  Greeks  used  the  phalanx — a  compact  mass 
of  heavy  armed  infantry.  Each  warrior  was  armed  with  a  heavy 
spear  and  protected  by  a  long  buckler. 

The  phalanx  was  drawn*  up  ten  deep,  thus  giving  their  army 
something  over  a  thousand  front  only.  The  Greek  tactics  depended 
on  the  momentum  of  the  phalanx,  with  its  forest  of  projecting 
speai*s,  and  on  the  discipline  by  which  the  ranks  were  kept  solid, 
for  any  break  of  the  line  made  its  array  useless.  A  slow  and  cautious 
advance  was  therefore  generally  made,  in  order  to  be  sure  of  keeping 
the  ranks  of  the  phalanx  perfect  till  its  impact  against  the  oppos- 
ing force.  On  this  occasion,  contrary  to  use,  the  Greek  line  insen- 
sibly quickened  its  pace  as  it  descended  the  slope,  the  rear  ranks 
pushing  the  front  ones  forward.  Whether  this  quickened  step  was 
pre-arranged,  or  an  effect  of  the  sloping  hill-side,  is  unknown.  A 
running  charge  of  the  phalanx  was  unheard  of,  but  this  one  did  not 
break  its  ranks,  and  its  momentum  was  irresistible. 

The  Persian  array  was  swept  down  like  grass,  and  the  battle 
was  instantly  won,  over  an  immensely  superior  force,  by  the  con- 
fusion and  terror  resulting.  A  large  part  of  the  Persian  force  made 
its  escape  to  the  ships,  and  these  set  sail  for  a  direct  attack  on 
Athens.  But  the  quick  march  of  the  Greek  army  back  to  the  oppo- 
site coast  forestalled  a  surprise,  and  the  Persians  did  not  venture  a 
second  landing. 


PERSIAN     WARS.  49 

The  battle  of  Marathon  was  not  such  a  case  of  discipline  conquering 
numbers  that  it  lay  in  the  power  of  the  Persians,  by  adopting  Greek  tactics,  or  by 
perfecting  their  discipline,  to  retrieve  defeat.  The  system  of  the  Eastern  world 
could  not  develop  the  individual  training  and  discipline  on  which  the  Greek  tactics 
depended.  It  was,  moreover,  impossible  to  infuse  into  an  Eastern  army  the 
moral  courage  and  patriotic  enthusiasm  which  inspired  the  victors  of  Marathon. 
The  Persian  despotism  was  not  especially  odious  to  the  peoples  united  by  it 
(excepting  to  Egypt),  but  the  contingents  of  various  nations  of  wliich  a  Persian 
army  was  composed  were  not  bound  together  by  the  inner  cohesion  of  common 
nationality  and  of  absolute  devotion  to  a  common  cause.  As  long  as  the  East- 
ern civilizations  had  lasted,  the  plan  of  depending  on  superior  numbers  and 
physical  force  had  served  its  end,  because  among  all  Eastern  nations  the  same 
system  essentially  prevailed.  Now,  for  the  first  time  in  history,  it  became 
apparent  that  Europe,  which  had  so  lately  been  dependent  on  the  Asiatics  in 
matters  of  civilization,  had  risen  above  and  outstripped  Its  teachers.  The  vic- 
tory of  Marathon  was  a  triumph  of  moral  over  physical  nature,  of  intelligence 
over  matter,  of  European  self-government  over  Asiatic  despotism. 

A  new  Persian  armament  against  the  Athenians  was  delayed 
l)y  the  death  of  Darius,  b.  c.  486,  but  was  continued  by  his  son  and 
successor,  Xerxes.  Xerxes  marched  on  Greece,  in  b.  c.  480,  by  way  of 
Thrace  and  Macedonia,  with  about  1,000,000  men,  and  attended  by 
a  fleet  of  3,000  sail.  It  was  against  this  army  that  300  Spartans 
under  Leonidas,  with  some  auxihary  contingents,  successfully  de- 
fended the  Pass  of  Thermopylae  for  two  days,  until,  having  informa- 
tion that  an  army  of  Persians  was  crossing,  by  a  treacherously 
exposed  mountain  defile,  to  the  rear  of  the  pass,  they  refused  to  save 
themselves  by  flight,  and  continued  fighting  till  the  last  man  had 
fallen.  The  Persian  armies  marched  through  Boeotia  into  Attica, 
and  burned  Athens.     Her  citizens  had  taken  refuge  on  shipboard. 

The  Athenian  fleet  had  been  constantly  increased  and  con- 
stantly drilled,  since  the  battle  of  Marathon,  by  the  foresight  of 
Themistocles  (p.  65).  It  amounted  to  one  half  of  the  entire  Greek 
fleet,  which  had  altogether  about  600  ships.  After  three  naval 
battles  off  Euboea,  in  which  the  Persians  lost  heavily  without  being 
beaten,  the   Greek    ships   drew  into    the  narrow  sound  between 


50  GREECE. 

the  Island  of  Salamis  and  Athens.  Here  they  were  surrounded  by 
the  Persian  fleet,  and  a  battle  was  fought,  which  Xerxes  and  his 
army  watched  from  the  shore.  The  superior  handling  of  the  Greek 
galleys,  whose  oarsmen  had  been  carefully  drilled  to  naval  manoeu- 
vres, gave  them  the  victory. 

Although  the  Persian  fleet  was  still  numerous  and  the  land  army 
undefeated,  Xerxes  was  so  disheartened  that  he  returned  to  Asia, 
leaving  300,000  men  to  effect  the  conquest  of  Greece. 

This  army  "was  defeated  by  the  Greeks,  under  command  of 
the  Spartan  Pausanias,  at  Plataea,  in  the  following  year,  b.  c.  479. 
On  the  same  day,  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Persians  in  Asia  Minor 
was  won  on  the  promontory  of  Mycale,  opposite  Samos. 

In  their  expeditions  against  the  Greeks,  tlie  Persians  depended  mainly  for 
their  fleets  on  the  Phoenicians.  An  alliance  with  the  Phoenicians  of  the  West 
had  combined  all  the  forces  of  Carthage  against  the  Sicilian  Greeks.  An 
immense  Carthaginian  army  was  defeated  at  Himera,  in  Sicily,  on  the  day  of 
the  battle  of  Salamis. 

ATHENIAN    ASCENDENCY,    480-430    B.C. 

The  result  of  the  victories  over  the  Persians  was  an  expan- 
sion of  Greek  character  and  Greek  life  which  makes  the  5th  century 
B.  c.  the  glorious  age  of  literature  and  art.  The  Athenians  had 
been  the  main  object  of  attack,  and  had  exhibited  the  most  devo- 
tion to  the  cause  of  Greece  in  general.  Marathon  and  Salamis,  two 
of  three  greatest  victories,  had  been  won  by  their  valor.  In  the 
third  victory,  at  Plataea,  they  had  played  a  most  important  part. 
They  now  became  the  head  of  an  aggressive  war  on  the  Persians, 
which  was  concluded  with  success,  b.  c.  4G0.  Naval  armaments 
being  essential  in  this  war,  and  foreign  to  the  genius  of  Sparta,  this 
state  was  more  in  tlie  background. 

The  cities  of  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  ^gean  were 
combined  by  the  Athenian  Aristides  into  the  Confederacy  of  Deles, 
so  called  from  the  island  of  the  Archipelago  in  which  the  treasury 


ATHENIAN"  ASCENDENCY. 


51 


of  the  confederacy  was  first  established.  In  place  of  the  contribu- 
tions of  men  and  ships  supplied  at  first  by  the  different  states, 
contributions  of  money  were  afterwards  made,  with  which  Athens 
undertook  the  protection  of  the  confederacy. 


^3i^i^^ 


I'.^^a 


7^ 


'''^'■* ' 


Euins  of  the  Parthenon. 

The  treasury  was  soon  moved  to  Athens,  and  tlie  taxes  were  raised  with- 
out reference  to  actual  expenses.  Finally  they  were  regarded  as  a  tribute  to 
that  city.  Under  the  direction  of  the  famous  statesman  and  orator,  Pericles, 
(after  the  death  of  Aristides,  468),  the  Athenian  democracy  was  the  arbiter, 
judge,  and  director  of  the  whole  confederacy.  With  the  wealth  of  which 
Athens  was  now  mistress,  Pericles  beautified  the  city  with  the  buildings  and 
statues  which  have  made  Athenian  art  the  synonym  for  classic  perfection. 

The  sculptor  Phidias  was  the  ruling  mind  in  these  artistic  creations. 
Under  his  direction  was  erected  on  the  Acropolis  the  Parthenon,  most  famous 
of  Greek  temples  of  the  Doric  style,  about  440  b.  c.  For  the  colossal  gold  and 
ivory  Minerva  within  this  temple,  six  hundred  thousand  dollars  worth  of  gold 
was  employed.  The  entrance  gates  of  the  Acropolis  (Prophylsea)  were  no  less 
famous.  The  temple  of  the  Erechtheium,  also  on  the  Acropolis,  was  built  in 
the  Ionic  order  after  the  Prophyleea  were  finished,  after  430  B  C.  (p.  53).  The 
ruins  of  these  buildings  are  still  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  world, 
while  the  gable  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  now  in  the  British  Museum  at  Lon- 
don, rank  as  the  most  perfect  works  of  sculpture  (the  Elgin  Marbles). 


52  GREECE. 

In  literature,  the  5th  century  generally  boasts  the  most  distinguished 
names  (excepting  Homer),  or  the  pre-eminence  of  having  prepared  the  greatness 
of  those  who  came  later.  Herodotus  was  a  Greek  of  Asia  Minor,  whose  history  ot 
the  Persian  wars  is  interwoven  with  interesting  accounts  of  the  Eastern  nations 
and  of  his  own  travels.  He  is  called  the  "  father  of  history."  Thucydides  was 
an  Athenian  who  wrote  the  history  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  great  contest 
between  Athens  and  Sparta  (to  be  summarized  in  the  next  chapter).  Xenophon 
wrote  the  account  of  the  expedition  of  the  10,000  Greeks  into  Persia,  knoAvn  as 
the  "  Anabasis  "  (summarized  in  the  next  chapter).  These  authors  show  that 
combination  of  unaffected  simplicity  with  supreme  art  which  distinguishes  all 
productions  of  the  Greeks. 

In  philosophy,  Socrates  the  Athenian  developed,  by  conversational 
analysis,  without  himself  leaving  literary  works,  a  system  elaborated  by  Plato 
(4th  century),  also  an  Athenian.  The  dialogues  of  Plato  touch  the  highest 
level  of  purely  human  moral  philosophy.  Aristotle  (4tli  century)  was  the 
father  of  science  and  of  scientific  method. 

The  dramatic  authors  of  Athens  wrote  for  a  stage  before  which  the 
entire  people  assembled  for  edification  and  instruction  as  well  as  amusement. 
The  tragedies  of  JSschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides  exhibit  the  religious 
ideals  of  the  Greeks  in  their  greatest  period.  The  comedies  of  Aristophanes 
conceal,  under  an  external  cover  of  wit  and  license,  the  severity  of  a  censor 
and  a  moralist.* 

The  worth  of  Greek  literature  may  be  valued  by  its  later  influence. 
The  Latin  authors  and  poets  afterward  drew  their  ideals  and  inspiration,  and 
much  of  their  matter,  from  Greek  sources.  The  Italian  Revival  of  Letters,  or 
Renaissance,  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  a.  d.,  from  which  the  later  modem 
learning  is  derived,  is  based  on  the  learning  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  authprs. 

PELOPONNESIAN    WAR,  430-400    B.  C. 

The  civic  constitutions  of  Greece  were  not  adapted  to  expansion  or 
foreign  dominance  like  that  of  Rome.  The  career  of  democracy  on  which 
Athens  was  fully  launched  in  the  times  of  Pericles  was  not  long  compatible 
with  a  dominance  over  the  states  combined  in  the  Confederacy  of  Delos.  The 
fickleness  of  the  Athenian  multitude  increased  with  the  increasing  number  of 
citizens.  Del  liberations  carried  on  in  public  concourse  lost  their  moderation 
when  the  control  of  the  voting  body  escaped  the  power  of  the  orator's  voice. 

*  For  a  cbancteriBtic  type  of  the  Greek  theatre,  see  illastration  at  page  90. 


PELOPONNESIAN    WAR. 


53 


The  loudest  lunged  became  the  leaders  of  the  people.  The  organism  of  the 
Greek  states,  having  no  representative  system,  and  no  Roman  ideal  of  giving: 
rights  of  the  victors  to  the 
vanquished,  could  not  ex- 
tend its  control  over  its 
fellows  without  ruling 
them  by  force  and  arbi- 
trary power. 

The  rule  of  a  for- 
eign democracy  proved 
more  galling  to  the  Greek 
states  of  the  Mge&n  than 
the  rule  of  native  "  Ty- 
rants." As  the  memory  of 
the  Persian  wars  faded 
away,  they  grew  restive 
under  the  taxation  for 
Athenian  works  of  art. 

Conservative    Sparta 
viewed    with    more    and 
more  distaste    the    ascen- 
dency and  democratic   in- 
fluence of  Athens.     A  ten- 
sion between  these  states,  dating  from  the  time  of  Glisthenes  (page  48),  devel 
oped  into  a  struggle  in  which  many  of  the  states  in  the  Confederacy  of  Delos 
became  an  assistance  to  the  Spartans,  and  gave  them  courage  to  enter  on  the 
war. 

The  formal  pretext  for  this  strife  between  Athens  and  Sparta 
was  a  quarrel  between  Corinth  and  her  island  colony,  Zacynthus 
(west  of  the  Peloponnesus). 

The  Peloponnesian  war  lasted  nearly  thirty  years,  from  431 
to  404  B.  c.  Pericles  died  soon  after  it  began.  Sparta  having  an 
undoubted  ascendency  in  the  land  army,  and  Athens  having  an 
undoubted  ascendency  in  the  fleet,  each  party  raided  and  distressed 
the  other  without  decisive  results  for  some  years.  All  the  states  of 
Greece,  and  most  of  the  colonies  as  far  as  Sicily,  took  sides,  accord- 
ing to  their  democratic  or  aristocratic  tendencies.     In  each  state  a 


Ruins  of  the  Erectheiuui. 


54  aREECE. 

democratic  and  aristocratic  party  struggled  to  control  its  policy, 
and  as  one  party  or  the  other  triumphed  the  state  changed  sides. 
The  war  differed  from  those  waged  from  time  immemorial  among  the 
independent  states  of  Greece  by  becoming  a  social  struggle,  in  which 
parties  were  more  than  patriotism,  and  to  which  the  animosities  of 
rich  and  poor,  of  privileged  and  unprivileged,  added  unheard-of 
bitterness.  Mercenary  soldiers  began  to  be  used,  a  thing  hitherto 
unknown  in  Greek  warfare,  and  equally  unusual  cruelties  were 
committed.  The  first  ten  years  of  war  ended  without  decisive 
results.  A  treaty  was  made  by  which  each  party  gave  up  its 
conquests. 

The  Sicilian  Expedition. — In  415  the  Athenians,  still  un- 
shaken in  confidence,  apparently  unshaken  in  power,  were  led  by 
Alcibiades  to  an  expedition  against  the  Sicilian  Syracuse,  with 
intention  to  incorporate  the  Sicilian  Greeks  in  general  in  the 
Athenian  Empire.  Alcibiades  was  disgraced  with  the  fickle  multi- 
tude, on  a  charge  of  sacrilege,  before  Syracuse  was  attacked,  and 
was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Sparta,  which  he  incited  to  war  on  his 
native  city  after  the  Sicilian  expedition  had  failed.  This  began 
the  third  period  of  the  war,  in  which  Alcibiades  at  last  became 
again  for  a  time  the  commander  of  his  countrymen. 

A  final  defeat  of  the  Athenians  at  ^gos  Potamos,  on  the 
Hellespont,  placed  Athens  at  the  mercy  of  the  Spartan  general, 
Lysander.  She  was  deprived  of  all  her  dependencies  and  subject 
states.  Her  walls  were  torn  down,  and  an  aristocratic  party  was 
placed  in  power  under  Spartan  protection.  Although  the  internal 
government  was  soon  afterwards  again  made  democratic,  the  power 
acquired  after  the  Persian  wars  was  not  regained.  But  Athens  re- 
mained, in  the  world  of  intellect  and  of  letters,  the  seat  of  a  more 
glorious  empire  than  the  fate  of  arms  can  bestow  or  take  away. 

Sparta  had  apparently  triumphed,  but  she  had  conquered 
with  the  arms  of  her  enemy — that  is,  by  becoming  a  naval  power,  and 
this  was  to  undermine  the  fabric  of  her  old  Doric  conservatism.  She 
had  accepted  the  money  and  assistance  of  the  Persians  on  the  shore 


PELOPONXESIAN     WAR.  55 

of  Asia  Minor,  and  thus  lost  the  esteem  of  patriotic  Greeks.  Her 
kings  had  become  involved  in  the  intrigues  of  the  East,  and  in  the 
pursuit  of  criminal  ambitions.  The  cities  of  the  iEgean  had  been 
compelled,  in  general,  to  accept  Spartan  governors,  and  their  rule 
was  as  odious  to  one  party  in  these  cities  as  Athenian  demo- 
cratic rule  had  been  to  the  other.  Thus  the  Peloponnesian  war 
marks  the  decline  in  strength  of  the  Greek  political  constitu- 
tions, both  Doric  and  Ionic.  But  the  influence  of  the  Greeks  as 
individuals,  and  as  representatives  of  European  civilization,  was 
increasing.  • 

The  Anabasis. — Exactly  at  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  occurred 
an  event  which  gave  the  Greeks  a  new  sense  of  their  superiority  to  the  East.  In 
405  died  Artaxerxes  I.  of  Persia.  The  succession  of  his  son,  Artaxerxes  II.,  was 
contested  by  his  younger  brother  Cyrus,  son  of  another  and  more  favored  wife, 
and  firstborn  after  his  father  had  become  king.  On  this  ground,  Cyrus  (called 
the  Minor  to  distinguish  hira  from  Cyrus  the  Great,  founder  of  the  Persian 
monarchy)  laid  claim  to  the  throne.  As  governor  of  Asia  Minor,  Cyrus  had 
assisted  Sparta  to  her  triumph  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  in  order  to  raise,  by 
her  permission,  an  army  of  Greek  mercenaries,  with  whose  assistance  he  in- 
tended to  conquer  the  Persian  throne. 

Cyrus  marched  with  10,000  heavy  armed  Greeks  from  Sardes  on  Babylon. 
Arrived  near  that  city,  at  Cunaxa,  the  Greek  phalanx  won  an  easy  victory  over 
an  immense  army  of  Persians,  401  B.  c. ;  but  in  the  moment  of  victory  Cyrus 
lost  his  life  in  a  charge  of  cavalry.  The  Ten  Thousand  were  led  back  by  Xeno- 
phon  in  safety  through  the  mountains  of  Armenia  lo  the  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  thence  home.  His  history  of  this  memorable  expedition  is  called  the 
' '  Anabasis  "  (the  going  up,  or  march  up,  to  Babylon). 

The  project  of  Cyrus  shows  the  respect  in  which  the  Greeks  were  beginning 
to  be  held  by  the  older  Eastern  nations,  and  the  march  of  the  Ten  Thousand 
laid  bare  the  weakness  of  the  Persian  Empire  to  friend  and  foe.  One  resource 
only  was  left  the  Persians — the  power  of  gold  to  excite  dissensions  among  the 
Greek  states,  and  thus  divert  their  energies  from  turning  against  Persia. 


56 


GREECE. 


CONTESTS   OF   GREEK    STATES  TILL  THE    MACEDONIAN 
ASCENDENCY,    B.  C.  400-350. 

Corinthian  War. — War  was  declared  by  Persia  on  Sparta  in 
retaliation  for  the  assistance  given  Cyrus  Minor.     The  campaigns  of 


Athenian  Silver  Coin, 
with  Head  of  Minerva. 


Eeverse,  with  Owl 
sacred  to  Minerva. 


the  Spartan  king  Agesilaus  in  Asia  Minor  were  so  successful  that 
Persia  was  obliged  to  stir  up  strife  in  Greece.  This  led  to  the 
Corinthian  war,  in  which  Corinth,  Argos,  Athens,  Thebes,  and 
Thessaly,  assisted  by  Persian  money,  combined  against  the  Spartans. 

The  result  of  this  war  was  to  preserve  and  strengthen  Spartan 
ascendency,  but  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  sacrificed  by 
her  to  the  Persians  for  this  end.  The  peace  was  even  arranged  at 
the  Persian  Court,  387  B.  c. 

Olynthian  War. — The  only  state  which  refused  to  accept  the 
peace  and  the  supremacy  of  Sparta,  thereby  made  obligatory,  was 
Olynthus  (on  Chalcidice)  and  the  confederacy  of  cities  which  it 
headed.  This  led  to  war  with  Sparta,  in  which  the  powerful  Olyn- 
thian Confederacy  was  crushed,  383-379,  and  the  way  made  easy 
for  the  later  rise  of  Macedonia,  hitherto  held  in  check  by  this  Con- 
federacy. 

A  Spartan  army,  marching  through  Boeotia  against  Olynthus, 
was  invited  by  the  aristocratic  i)arty  of  Thebes  to  seize  the  citadel 
and  support  a  Theban  oligarchy,  383. 


MACEDONIAN  SUPREMACY.  57 

Theban  Ascendency. — This  led  to  the  struggle  of  Thebes, 
378-e362,  headed  by  Epaminondas,  in  which  the  power  of  Sparta 
was  broken  by  the  battles  of  Leuctra,  371,  and  Mantinea,  362.  She 
was  even  stripped  of  her  century-long  rule  of  Messenia,  and  the  city 
of  Megalopolis  was  founded  in  Arcadia  to  cripple  any  restoration  of 
power.  These  remarkable  victories  over  the  hereditary  masters  of 
Greek  land  warfare  were  effected  by  the  new  tactics  of  Epaminondas 
— also  pursued  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte — the  method  of  breaking 
the  enemy's  hne  by  concentration  of  force  on  one  point.  To  this 
end  the  phalanx  was  given  the  form  of  a  wedge.  Epaminondas  died 
on  the  battlefield  of  Mantinea.  Philip  of  Macedon  was  his  pupil, 
and  developed  his  system  into  the  famous  Macedonian  phalanx. 

THE    MACEDONIAN    SUPREMACY;    FINALLY    ESTABLISHED 

B.  C.  338. 

The  inhabitants  of  Macedonia  belonged  to  the  stock  of 
which  the  Greek  race  were  members,  but  down  to  the  time  of  tlieir 
king  Philip  had  been  a  hardy  peasantry,  without  refinement  or 
civilization.  Under  this  ruler  the  Macedonian  powec  was  extended 
over  Thrace,  and  acquired  great  importance  by  the  subjugation  of 
the  important  Greek  colonies  reaching  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the 
Peninsula  of  Chalcidice.  While  wealth  was  secured  by  their  tributes 
and  the  control  of  their  important  commercial  interests,  the  power 
of  Macedonia  was  consolidated  by  strong  organism,  and  supported 
by  the  most  highly  perfected  military  system  yet  developed.  • 

The  Macedonian  phalanx  was  given  a  spear  twenty-one  feet  ^ 
in  length,  and  its  depth  was  increased  to  sixteen  files.  The  front 
rank  was  protected  by  five  projecting  spears,  the  others  were  held 
up,  slanting  forward.  Thirty-two  thousand  men  thus  arranged 
would  make  a  front  of  only  two  thousand  men,  and  the  momentum 
of  a  phalanx  thus  constituted  was  irresistible  in  warfare  as  then 
known. 

Above  all,  the  Macedonian  power  was  wielded  by  a  shrewd  and 


58 


GREECE. 


politic  prince  against  the  divided  councils  and  weakened  force  of  the 
jarring  repubUcs  of  Greece.  The  intervention  of  Philip  in  Greek 
politics  was  invited  by  certain  states  against  their  rivals,  and  resulted 
in  the  overthrow  of  all. 

A  period  of  intngues  and  warfare,  which  began  shortly  after 
the  death  of  Epaminondas,  and  which  lasted  about  twenty  years, 
proved  that  the  moral  forces  and  patriotic  vigor  of  Greek  life  were 
exhausted,  that  the  ambition  of  Thebes  was  unequal  to  the  task 
which  her  victories  over  Sparta  had  tempted  her  to  undertake.  In 
these  intrigues  and  quarrels  Philip  was  first  a  mediator  and  participa- 
tor, then  a  gradually  ascendant  power.  Foremost  in  a  league  against 
Philip  was  Athens,  headed  by  Demosthenes,  and  joined  with  Thebes ; 
but  the  defeat  of  ChBeronea,  in  Boeotia,  b.  c.  338,  decided  the  fate  of 
Greece  and  subjected  her  states  to  the  Macedonian  supremacy. 


MACEDONIAN  CONQUEST  OF  THE  PERSIAN  EMPIRE,  B.C.  333. 

Amalgamation  of  the  Greek  and  Eastern  Civilization.— 

Philip  was  a  partisan  of  Greek  culture  and  education,  and  did  not 

abuse  his  victory.  The  gradual  decay  of 
the  Persian  Empire  offered  a  new  field 
for  Greek  enterprise,  a  new  mission  for 
Greek  civilization.  Under  Macedonian 
leadership  and  adoption  it  was  about 
to  begin  a  new  career — that  of  foreign 
triumph  and  diffusion. 

The  project  of  conquering  the 
East,  which  Philip  contemplated  as  a 
means  of  uniting  the  energies  of  Greece 
in    foreign    enterprise,  and    so    leading 

its  states  to   forget    their  subjugation,   was    interrupted    by  his 

death,  b.  c.  336.     The  project  descended  to  his  son  Alexander  the 

Great. 

After  quelling  the  revolts  which  the  accession  of  a  young  and 


Coin  with  Head  of  Alexander. 


CONQUEST    OF    THE    PERSIAN    EMPIUE, 


59 


untried  prince  (he  was  but  twenty),  naturally  excited  in  an  empire 
so  lately  brought  together,  Alexander  entered  Asia  Minor  with  an 
army  of  but  thirty-five  thousand  men.  He  won  his  first  victory 
over  the  Persian  forces  in  a  brilliant  cavalry  action  on  the  Granicus 
(Northwest  Asia  Minor,  b.  c.  334).  Not  till  he  reached  the  town  of 
Issus,  on  the  coast  of  Northern  Syria,  did  the  Persians  again  oflPer 
dangerous  resistance. 

In  the  battle  of  Issus,  b.  c.  333,  the  Persian  king,  Darius. 
escaped  with  difficulty :  his  army  was  totally  defeated.     Alexander 


Battle  of  Issus.     Ancient  mosaic  picture  in  Naples  Museum,  from  Pompeii.* 

did  not  march  on  Babylon  and  Persepolis,  but  turned  down  the 
coast  of  Syria,  in  order,  by  conquering  the  entire  coast  line  of  the 
empire,  to  prevent  expeditions  against  the  Greek  states,  or  alliances 
with  them,  after  he  should  march  into  the  interior  of  Asia.  After 
a  desperate  resistance  by  the  city  of  Tyre  to  his  besieging  army, 
Syria  was  won,  and  Egypt  was  next  conquered  without  striking  a 
blow,  B.  c.  332.   Here  the  Persian  despotism  had  always  been  odious 


*  The  horse  in  the  foreground  is  being  held  ready  for  the  escape  of  the  king,  but  Darius  is 
too  much  agitated  by  the  fate  of  a  friend,  transfixed  by  the  spear  of  Alexander,  to  care  for  hig 
own  safety  at  the  moment  here  represented. 


60  GREECE. 

— ^the  Greeks  were  welcomed  as  liberators.  The  site  of  Alexandria 
was  fixed,  and  this  still  important  city  was  then  fouaded. 

From  Egypt  Alexander  marched  by  way  of  Syria,  on  the 
countries  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  He  met  the  Persian  army  at 
Arbela,  B.  c.  331  (beyond  the  site  of  Nineveh),  and  totally  defeated  it. 
Darius  fled  for  his  life,  and  was  murdered  by  a  satrap  during  the 
pursuit  of  the  Greeks. 

The  battle  of  Arbela  decided  the  fate  of  Persia.  Where  so 
many  nations  were  bound  already  by  a  foreign  rule,  the  change  of 
masters  was  at  least  indifferent  to  them  if  not  actively  desired,  and 
the  rule  of  Alexander  was  mild  and  benevolent.  The  march  of  the 
Macedonians  was  now  continued  toward  the  Indus,  with  a  turn  to 
the  north  which  added  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes 
to  their  conquests. 

Beyond  the  Indus  Alexander  entered  the  country  of  the  Pun- 
jaub  (b.  c.  327),  and  defeated  the  Indian  prince,  Porus,  who  opposed 
him  with  elephants.  But  on  the  banks  of  the  Kyphosis  the  wearied 
soldiers  refused  to  advance  further.  Alexander  then  descended  the 
Indus,  dispatched  a  fleet  to  return  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
himself  led  the  bulk  of  the  army  back  by  land.  The  most  terrible 
privations  were  suffered  on  this  march. 

In  Babylon,  Alexander,  having  himself  married  the  daughter 
of  Darius,  effected  the  marriage  of  ten  thousand  of  his  officers  and 
soldiers  with  Persians,  as  symbol  and  beginning  of  the  amalgamation 
between  Greece  and  Asia  which  he  proposed,  and  which  was  effected 
in  the  centuries  following  his  death  (b.  c.  323). 


THE  GREEK    STATES  OF  THE  EAST  WHICH    REPLACED  THE 
PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 

Alexander  had  chosen  no  successor  and  left  no  children,  except  an 
infant  b«m  after  his  death.  But  the  division  of  his  empire  resulting  from  this 
absence  of  a  single  successor  rather  facilitated  than  impeded  the  expansion  of 


GREEK  STATES  OF  THE  EAST. 


61 


Greek  civilization,  by  dispersing  difEerent  centres  of  Greek  military  rule  and 
Greek  culture.  The  final  division  of  the  Greek  Eastern  states  among  the  gen- 
erals of  Alexander  and  their  successors  was  established  by  the  battle  of  Ipsus 
in  Asia  Minor,  301  B.  c. 

Ptolemy  already  held  Egypt.  After  him  are  named  the  Greek  rulers  of 
Egypt  till  the  time  of  Roman  conquest,  b,  c.  30.  Alexandria,  the  capital,  be- 
came the  most  important  centre  of  Greek  science  and  learning,  and  the  seat  of 
the  famed  library  finally  destroyed  by  the  Mohammedan-  Arabs,  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury A.  D.  The  wealth  of  Egypt  was  centred  in  Alexandria — a  Greek  city — 
but  the  Egyptians  were  ruled  with  wisdom  and  tolerance.  A  new  period  of 
Egyptian  architecture  began,  which  attests  a  prosperity  unknown  since  B.  c. 
1200. 

Seleucus  and  his  descendants,  the  Seleucidae,  ruled  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  countries  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  Antioch  in  Syria  was  a  Greek  city 
and  capital  of  this  empire. 

The  city  of  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  surrounding  territory,  was 
ruled  by  the  Attalids.  Pergamus  was  an  important  centre  of  literature  and 
learning.     Our  word  parchment  is  hence  named. 

The  farther  countries  of  the  Persian  Empire  next  the  Indus,  for 
a  short  time  ruled  by  the  Seleucidae,  were  then  ruled  by  Greek  dynasties  loosely 
connected  with  the  West,  and  gradually  faded  (3d  century  b.  c.)  into  the  Par 


Ruins  of  Persepolis. 


thian  Empire,  which  also  conquered  the  Euphrates- Tigris  valley  before  b.  c. 
100.     The  province  of  Parthia  is  southeast  of  the  Caspian. 

Macedonia  was  ruled  by  a  dynasty  which  exercised  an  ascendency  over 
the  states   of  Greece  without  directly  annexing    them.      The  ^tolian   and 


62  G^  R  E  E  C  E  . 

Achaean  leagues  were  confederations  which  claimed  and  exercised  independent 
powers. 

If  the  spirit  of  liberty  had  still  existed,  actual  freedom  was  possible  and  not 
denied.  But  the  most  important  centre  of  Greece  was  the  recruiting  ground  on 
the  promontory  of  Taenarum  (Southern  Peloponnesus).  Greece  itself  was 
depopulated  by  the  drain  for  mercenary  service  in  the  armies  of  the  Greek 
Eastern  States,  and  by  the  attractions  of  the  Greek  Eastern  courts  and  luxury. 
Athens,  however,  continued  to  hold  its  own  as  a  seat  of  philosophy  and 
of  learning.  Corinth  remained  an  important  centre  of  Mediterranean  com- 
merce. 

The  Island  of  Rhodes  acquired  control  of  the  corn  trade  between  Egypt  and 
the  other  countries  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  and  thus  rose  to  great  wealth 
and  power.  The  Greek  cities  of  Sicily,  of  Southern  Italy,  of  South  France,  of 
Africa  (Cyrene),  of  the  Black  Sea,  were  important  places  in  the  "  Alexandrine  " 
time. 

All  states  and  cities  mentioned  (except  those  beyond  the  Euphrates)  were 
ultimately  incorporated  in  the  Empire  of  Rome.  (See  Chronology,  p.  63,  for 
the  dates.) 


SUMMARY   OF  GREEK    HISTORY. 

From  the  origins  of  the  Greek  race,  as  indicated  by  the  comparative  study 
of  languages,  we  have  passed  to  the  mythology  and  the  ideals  of  Greek  pagan- 
ism in  general,  whose  origins  are  also  studied  by  these  analogies  of  speech. 
From  the  mythical  period  we  pass  to  the  colonial.  The  poems  of  Homer  unite 
the  two,  and  belong  to  both. 

From  the  colonial  period  we  pass  to  the  internal  revolutions  of  the  Greek 
constitutions,  when  this  outlet  of  population  was  no  longer  possible,  and  when 
the  coasts  open  to  this  enterprise  had  all  been  occupied.  Two  different  ideals 
are  incorporated,  and  headed,  one  by  the  aristocratic  monarchy-republic  of 
Doric  Sparta,  and  one  by  the  democratic  Ionian  republic  of  Athens. 

In  the  Persian  wars  the  latter  takes  the  load,  and  afterwards  develops  the 
Athenian  ideal  of  literature  and  art.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war  Sparta  regains 
the  mastery  by  sacrificing  its  traditional  conservatism.  Each  system  in  turn 
proves  itself  unable  to  solidify  an  external  permanent  empire.  Greek  military 
tactics  are  devcloixid  by  Thebes  which  destroy  the  power  of  Sparta,  and  in  the 
liands  of  a  Macedonian  king  consolidate  the  energies  of  Greece  on  the  mastery 
of  the  Eastern  world. 


CHRONOLOGY.  63 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  GREEK   HISTORY. 

Aryan  period,  before B.  c.  1500 

Doric  migration,  about "  1100 

Ionian  (and  other)  settlements  in  Asia  Minor,  before  and  after.. "  1000 

(The  poems  of  Homer  represent  this  time.) 

Institutions  of  the  Spartan  Lycurgus,  after '*  850 

First  Olympiad "  776 

Marseilles  founded "  600 

(Average  dates  of  colonies  nearer  home — Italian,  Sicilian,  etc. — 
before  this  time.) 

Institutions  of  the  Athenian  Solon,  about **  590 

Tyranny  of  the  Athenian  Pisistratus,  after. '*  560 

His  sons,  Hipparchus  and  Hippias,  after  527 ;  Hippias  till "  510 

Ionic  revolt **  500 

Marathon "  490 

Thermopylae  and  Salamis "  480 

Athenian  ascendency,  till "  430 

Broken  during  the — 

Peloponnesian  war  (431-404),  till "  400 

March  of  the  Ten  Thousand  to  Babylon  (401).  about "  400 

Corinthian  war  results,  duration  seven  years  (394-387),  central  date.. .  "  390 

Olynthian  war  results,  duration  three  years,  central  date "  380 

Struggle  of  Thebes  and  Sparta  results,  duration  sixteen  years  (378- 

362),  central  date "  370 

Macedonian  intervention  of  Philip,  begins  about "  350 

Battle  of  Chaeronea "  338 

Alexander  the  Great  gains  the  Battle  of  Issus "  333 

Greece  and  Macedonia  Roman  provinces  (146),  after "  150 

Asia  Minor  Greek  after  Alexander,  Roman  (133)  after "  130 

Syria  Greek  after  Alexander,  Roman  (63)  after "  60 

Egypt  Greek  after  Alexander,  Roman  after "  30 

(Approximate  round  numbers  are  generally  preferred  in  foregoing  table  as 
easiest  to  memorize.) 


64 


GREECE. 


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DISTINGUISHED    GREEKS.  65 


TABLE   OF   DISTINGUISHED   GREEKS,   ARRANGED   IN    THE 
ORDER  OF  TIME  ACCORDING  TO  VOCATION. 

STATESMEN  Ai^D   GEKERALS. 

LycTirtrus.  Lawgiver  of  Sparta.    Authenticated  facts  of  his  life  are  unknown.    His 

9th  Century  b.  c.     institutions,  see  p.  39. 

Pheidon.  T^^g  of  Argoa,  and  last  representative  of  absolute  monarchy  in  Greece. 

8th  Century  B.  c.  The  first  to  coin  money  in  Greece,  and  possibly  inventor  of  the  art.  Some 
ancient  accounts  give  precedence  to  the  Lydians,  but  all  unite  in  ascribing  the  flist  coinage  to 
the  8th  century  b.  c.  Before  this  time  rings  or  stamped  ingots  of  the  precious  metals  were 
used.  Pheidon' s  dominion  reached  from  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  to  Cape  Malea.  His  date 
marks  the  final  greatness  and  subsequent  decline  of  Argos. 

Solon.  Founder  of  Athenian  democracy.    His  laws  were  copied  by  Rome.    Re- 

6th  Century  B.  o,     fused  the  supreme  power  when  offered;  traveled  and  studied  in  Egypt, 
whence  his  law  against  idleness,  and  other  laws,  were  derived.    Is  said  to  have  known  the 
Lydian  king,  Croesus. 
Pisistratus.  "Tjrrant"  of  Athens.     Rearranged  and   established  the  text  of  the 

6th  Century  b.  c.  Homeric  poems.  Laid  the  foundations  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  temple  at 
Athens,  erected  by  Hadrian,  the  Roman  Emperor,  seven  hundred  years  later ;  ruins  stiU  stand- 
ing. The  friend  and  relative  of  Solon.  Though  often  antagonized  by  the  latter,  he  cherished 
his  institutions. 

Polyorates.  "  Tyrant "  of  Samos,  famed  for  his  great  possessions  and  his  cruelty ; 

6th  Century  b.  c.  ally  and  friend  of  Amasis,  last  king  but  one  of  Egypt ;  was  decoyed  to  the 
mainland  of  Asia  Minor  and  put  to  death  shortly  before  the  Ionic  revolt.  "  The  Ring  of  Poly- 
crates,"  by  Schiller,  translated  byBulwer-Lytton,  is  a  famous  poem. 

Clisthenes.  Statesman  and  reformer  in  Athens  after  the  expulsion  of 

Close  of  the  6th  Century  b.  c.    Hippias  in  510  b.  c.  :  probably  deviser  of  "  Ostracism." 

Miltiades  ^^  Athenian,  but  also  "  Tyrant "  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese. 

5th  Century  B.  c.  Having  proposed  to  destroy  the  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Danube, 

Time  of  the  Persian  Wars.  ^^  ^^^  ^j^^  ^^  ^^^  Scythian  expedition  of  Darius,  he  fled  to  Athens 
and  became  the  hero  of  Marathon.  He  then  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  give  him  command 
of  a  fleet,  but  used  it  for  private  ends  in  an  attack  on  the  Island  of  Paros.  The  attack  failed, 
Miltiades  was  severely  wounded,  and  on  his  return  was  prosecuted  and  imprisoned  for  deceiv- 
ing the  people.    He  died  in  prison. 

Theiulstocles  Creator  of  the  Athenian  fleet  by  which  the  fortunes  of  the  day 

5th  Century  B.  c.  of  Salamis  were  determined.     A  man  of  immense  fertility  of 

Time  of  the  Persian  Wars,  j-gsource  and  self-confidence.  His  confidence  brought  on  him  the 
charge  of  boasting ;  his  success  brought  on  him  the  charge  of  ambition.  Involved  in  party 
contentions,  the  savior  of  his  country  was  made  to  feel  the  "  ingratitude  of  republics,"  and 
forced  to  leave  Athens,  then  driven  from  Greece.  He  obtained  protection  of  the  Persian  king, 
but  took  poison  in  449  b.  c.  rather  than  serve  against  his  country  as  he  was  summoned  to  do. , 


66 


GREECE. 


Aristides. 

5th  Century  b.  c. 

Time  of  the  Persian  Wars 

and  after. 

of  hearing  him  called 
"The  Just,"  but  was  recalled  at  the  time  of  Sala- 
mis.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  general  at  Platsea, 
and  was  a  prominent  commander  and  leading 
statesman  till  his  death  in  468. 

The  son  of  Miltiades, 


Had  opposed  the  plans  of  Themistocles  for  creating  the  Athe- 
nian fleet  and  was  ostracized  for  that  reason,  and  also  because  the 
Athenians   were    tired 


Cimon. 


Was 


Alcibiades. 
5tb  Century  b.  c. 
Time  of  the  Pelo 
ponnesian  War. 


5thCenturyB.  c.     a  successful  general  and  lead- 
Middle  Period.      .„g  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  .^  ^^^  ^.^^ 

intervening  between  the  greatest  power  of  Aris- 
tides and  that  of  Pericles,  which  followed.  He 
brought  the  reputed  bones  of  the  ancient  hero 
Theseus  to  Athens,  and  built  the  temple  of  The- 
seus, still  standing,  the  most  perfectly  preserved 
of  the  Greek  temples.    (Illustration,  p.  32.) 

Pericles.  ^^^  ™°^*  famous  statesman 

^^^■9^^^^ ^\P-     of  t^e  Greeks,  and  as  an  orator 
Middle  Period,       ,     ,  ^, 

doubtless  as  great  as  Demos- 

thcr.cs.  The  undying  fame  of  Pericles  is  his 
devotion  to  art  and  literature  amid  the  cares  of 
p'ate.  His  democracy  destroyed  itself,  and  his 
Parthenon  is  immortal. 

A  brilliant,  versatile,   dar- 
ingly brave,  and  consummately 
gifted  man.    His  gifts  were  his 
ruin.    His  ambition  was,  how- 
ever, but  the  climax  of  that  Athenian  self-glorifica- 
tion which  trusted  that  the  times  of  Pericles  would  last  when  the  man  himself  was  dead 
was  the  projector  of  the  Sicilian  expedition  (b.  c.  415),  which  politically  ruined  Athens. 
Epaminondas.         Regenerator  of  Thebes  and  conqueror  of  Sparta.   In  military  tactics  the 
4th  Century  b.  o.     teacher  of  the  Macedonian  Philip. 

Demosthenes.  Whose  name  is  a  synonym  for  greatness  in  oratory.    As  with  most  Buc- 

4th  Century  B.  0.  cessful  orators  of  all  times,  his  speeclies  were  carefully  prepared,  but 
delivered  as  though  extempore.  The  Philippics  of  Demosthenes  were  delivered  to  induce  the 
Athenians  to  assist  the  towns  of  Chalcidice  before  Philip,  by  conquering  them,  should  cast 
down  the  last  rampart  which  divided  him  from  Greece. 

PhilipofMacedon.  Made  a  great  state  of  his  native  country,  and  brought  it  within  the 
4th  Century  b.  o.  circle  of  Greek  culture.  He  could  not  destroy  the  liberties  of  Greece, 
as  has  been  said  ;  for  the  spirit  of  liberty  was  dead,  and  Demosthenes  could  not  awake  it.  He 
rather  solved  the  problem  of  finding  a  new  mission  abroad  for  Greece  in  decay  at  home. 
Alexander  the  Great.  Conqueror  of  the  Persian  Empire.  The  pupil  of  Aristotle  com- 
4th  Century  b,  c.  bined  the  enthusiasm  of  a  poet  with  the  bravery  of  a  warrior  and 

the  sense  of  a  statesman.  His  fame  as  a  conqueror  should  not  eclipse  the  glory  of  his  states- 
manship. 


Stiitiie  of  Aristides. 
{From  Herculamum,  Naples  Museum.) 


He 


DISTINGUISHED    GREEKS. 


ei 


Homer. 
Hesiod. 

Sappho. 
Alcaeus. 


POETS,    PHILOSOPHERS,   AND   MEN   OF   SCIENCE. 

Epic  poet ;  the  greatest  of  all  time.  Wrote  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  about 
B.  c.  1000.    An  Ionic  Greek  of  Asia  Minor. 

Didactic  poet.  Works—"  Theogonia,"  a  history  in  verse  of  the  origin  of  the 
gods  and  creation  of  the  world,  and  "  Works  and  Days."  A  Boeotian ;  lived 
about  B.  c.  850. 

Amatory  poetess  of  Lesbos,  b.  c.  600. 

Wrote  warlike  and  patriotic  odes;  native  of  Lesbos ;  about  600  b.  c. 


Anacreon.        Lyric  poet  of  Teos  (Ionia)  about  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  b.  c. 


iEsop. 


Bom  in  Phrj'gia ;  flourished  about  600  b.  c.  A  slave.  Although  undoubtedly 
the  author  of  animal  fables  noted  in  antiquity,  the  fables  now  known  as  .^sop's 
are  not  considered  his. 


Thales. 
6th  Century  b.  c. 


Philosopher.    An  Ionic  Greek  of  Asia  Minor. 


Philosopher ;  born  at  Samos ;  traveled  in  Egypt ;  settled  at  Crotona  in 
Italy.  An  astronomer  and  geometrician  of  great  knowledge.  He  taught 
that  numbers  are  the  basis  of  all  things,  the  harmony  (music)  of  the  spheres,  and  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul. 

Wrote  odes  to  the  victors  in  the  Olympian,  Nemean,  Isthmian,  and 
Pythian  games.  A  native  of  Bceotia,  and  one  of  the  most  esteemed  Greek 
poets. 

Fought  as  an  Athenian  warrior  at  Marathon,  Salami s,  and  Platsea. 
The  first  and  most  sublime  of  the  Tragic  Poets.  Seven  tragedies  only  pre- 
served, among  them  "The  Persians,"  "Prometheus  Chained." 

The  ideal  of  finished  perfection  in  Greek  dramatic  art:  danced  as  a  boy 

of  eighteen  in  the  chorus  which  celebrated  the  victory  of  Salamis.    The 

greatest  of  his  tragedies  are  the  three  on  the  fates  of  the  House  of 

(Edipus. 

Eurir>ides  ^^^  tragedies  are  philosophical,  moral,  and  didactic  rather 

~    "    '      than  religious  or  ideal.    He  was  the  favorite  poet  of  later  times, 

therefore  more  of  his  pieces  have  been  preserved  than  of  his 


Pythagroras. 

6th  Century  B.  c. 


Pindar. 

Flourished  before 
and  after  500  B.  c. 


-ffischylus. 

5th  Century  b.  c. 

Early  Period. 

Sophocles. 

5th  Century  b.  c. 

Middle  Period. 


4th  Cent.  b.  c.    Later  Period. 


Born  on  the  day  of  Salamis. 
two  earlier  contemporaries  together.    "Medea  "  and  "  Alcestis"  are  his  greatest  works. 
Aristophanes  ^^^  P°^*  ^^^  scourged  in  his  comedies  the  demagogues  and  ranters 


5th  Century  b.  c. 
Closing  Period. 


of  the  Peloponnesian  war.    His  comedy  of  the  "  Clouds  "  shows  the  old 
Greek  standpoint  of  conservative  objection  to  speculation  in  religion. 
Socrates,  as  teacher  of  novelties,  is  ridiculed  in  this  play. 

Socrates  Was,  like  all  the  leading  men  of  his  time,  valiant  as  a  warrior  in  the 

5th  Century  B.C.     ranks.    His  inquiring  mind  and  taste  for  dialectics  led  him  to  develop  a 
I)ie^399  system  of  doubt  as  to  the  traditional  beliefs,  and  to  advocate  the  substi- 

tution of  morality  for  mythology.  Involved  in  the  odium  which  the  fate  of 
Athens  in  the  Peloponnesian  war  brought  on  the  radical  and  progressive  party,  he  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  reactionary  government  set  up  by  Sparta  when  the  war  was  over.  He 
left  no  books ;  his  teachings  were  written  down  by  Xenophon  and  Plato. 


68  GREECE. 

Plato.  The  father  of  ideal  philosophy,  and  author  of  the  "  Dialogues,'*  i» 

4th  Cent.  B.C., 428-S47.  which  Socrates  appears  as  teacher.  From  Plato's  place  of  teaching,  in 
the  groves  of  Acaderaos,  comes  our  word  academy, 

Isocrates.  The  greatest  teacher  of  Athenian  rhetoric  and  oratory.    His  Con- 

4th  Cent.  b.  c.    Ist  half,    stitution  did  not  allow  him  to  enter  public  life. 

Aristotle.  Contemporary  and  teacher  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  the  first  to  estab- 

4th  Cent.  B.C.,  384-323.  ijph  the  natural  sciences  on  a  sure  foundation.  Only  in  the  latest  times 
has  human  knowledge  passed  the  limits  reached  by  Aristotle.  Born  at  Stagira  in  Chalcidice ; 
taught  at  Athens,  whence  he  was  banished  after  Alexander's  death. 

Epicurus.         Settled  at  Athens ;  taught  that  pleasure  is  the  sovereign  good,  but  his  doctrine, 
348-270  B.  c.    as  taught  by  himself,  conceived  that  pleasure  could  not  exist  without  reason  and 
prudence. 
Euclid.  Flourished  at  Alexandiia.    "  His  Elements  of  Geometry  have  been  trans- 

About  300  B.  c.    lated  into  most  languages,  and  have  held  their  ground  for  2000  years  as  the 
basis  of  geometrical  instruction." 
Aristarchus.  Greek  astronomer  of  Alexandria  ;  born  at  Samos.   The  first  astronomer 

3d  Century  B.  c.  ^ho  discovered  the  revolution  of  the  planetary  system  about  the  sun. 
He  had  also  a  conception  of  the  enormously  remote  distances  of  the  fixed  stars.  Ptolemy,  an 
Alexandrine  astronomer  and  geographer  of  the  2d  century  a.  d.  (Roman  Imperial  Period), 
abandoned  the  system  of  Aristarchus,  and  made  the  earth  the  centre  of  the  solar  system,  per- 
haps out  of  reverence  for  the  authority  of  Aristotle.  The  doctrme  of  Ptolemy  was  again 
reversed  by  Copernicus,  16th  century  A.  d. 

Eratosthenes.  Greek  astronomer  and  geographer  of  Alexandria ;  called  the  Surveyor 

3d  Century  b.  c.      of  the  World ;  measured  the  diameter  and  circumference  of  the  earth 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  present  computation. 
Hipparchus.  Greek  astronomer  of  Alexandria ;  made  a  catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars, 

3d  Century  b.  c.     and  was  the  father  of  mathematical  astronomy.    He  discovered  the  Pre- 
cession of  the  Equinoxes. 
Archimedes.  ^^  Syracuse.    The  most  celebrated  mathematician  and  mechanician 

3d  Century  b.  o.  among  the  ancients.  The  combination  of  pulleys  for  raising  heavy  weights, 
the  endless  screw,  a  sphere  to  represent  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  a  musical  organ 
worked  by  hydraulic  action,  were  invented  by  him.  During  the  defence  of  Syracuse,  besieged 
by  the  Roman  Marcellus,  he  is  said  to  have  fired  the  Roman  fleet  by  burning-glasses  con- 
nected with  a  series  of  reflecting  mirrors.  The  story  of  the  burning-glasses  has  been  much 
doubted  by  moderns,  but  appears  credible  in  view  of  the  experiment  of  the  modem  savant 
Buflbn,  who  ignited  wood  at  a  distance  of  150  feet  by  a  combination  of  plane  mirrors. 


HISTORIANS. 

Herodotus  ^  Halicamassus,  In  Asia  Minor.    Wrote  the  history  of  the  Persian 

5th  Century  b.  c.  warn,  interwoven  with  accounts  of  his  own  travels.    The  most  simple  and 

Middle  Period.  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  historians;  certainly  the  first  whose 
works  have  been  handed  down. 

Thucydides  ^'  Athens.    Wrote  in  banishment  the  history  of  the  Peloponnesian 

5th  Century  b.  c.  war,  in  which  he  had  been  at  first  a  general.    His  work  is  distinguished  as 

Closing  Period,  ^j^^  ^^^  philosophical  of  the  ancient  histories. 


DISTINGUISHED    GREEKS. 


69 


Xenophon. 

Before  and  after 
400  b.  c. 


An  Athenian.  Wrote  the  "■  Anabasis  "  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks  and 
"Memorabilia"  of  Socrates;  also  continued  the  history  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  where  abandoned  by  Thucydides,  and  carried  Greek  history 
down  to  the  battle  of  Mantinea.  Xenophon  lived  after  the  Anabasis  in  banishment  at  Sparta, 
whose  institutions  he  much  admired. 

Polvbius.  -^  Greek  hostage  in  Rome.   Became  the  friend  of  Scipio  Minor,  whom  he 

2d  Century  b.  c.      accompanied  in  the  third  Punic  war,  146  B.  c.    He  wrote  a  general  history 
of  Greece  and  Rome  during,  and  just  before,  his  own  times. 


SCULPTORS. 

Phidias.  Of  Athens;  time  of  Pericles;  createdtheidealsof  Jupiter  and  Minerva  in 

5th  Century  b.  c.  sculpture.  Under  his  direction  were  executed  the  gable  sculptures  of  the 
Parthenon,  the  "  Elgin  Marbles,"  now  in  the  British  Museum  at  London.  He  was  the  greatest 
of  all  sculptors.    His  style  was  simple  and  grand. 

Praxiteles  and        Flourished  in  the  4th  century  b.  c.  Middle  Period.    They  are  the  repre- 
Scopas.  sentatives  of  the  beautiful  and  lovely  as  opposed  to  the  majestic  and  com- 

manding. The  types  of  Venus,  Bacchus,  Cupid,  and  the  Faun  were  created  by  them.  The 
Niobe  group  in  Florence  dates  from  Scopas ;  the  "  Marble  Faun"  of  the  Capitol  in  Rome,  from 
Praxiteles.    These  works,  however,  are  copies. 

Was  the  contemporary  of  Alexander,  and  he  alone  was  allowed  to  make 
ysippus.        ^.^  portrait.    From  him  dates,  in  copy,  the  immense  Hercules  now  in  the 
Naples  Museum. 


SCULPTURE   AFTER   ALEXANDER  THE   GREAT. 


Temple  of  the  "  Wingless  "  Victory  at  Athens.  louic  Order. 


The  names  of  this  period  are 
obscured  by  the  multitude  of 
works.  All  the  statues  of  the 
Itahan  and  other  European  mu- 
seums, except  the  portraits  of 
distinguished  Romans,  are  Greek 
in  subject  and  design,  though 
generally  made  in  the  times  of 
the  Roman  Empire. 

Especially  famed,  of  the  time 
after  Alexander,  are  the  Laocoon 
group  and  the  Belvedere  Apollo 
of  the  Vatican  Museum. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

The  simple  and  heavy 
Doric  style  was  dominant 
before  the  Peloponnesian  war 
(examples,  pp.  32,  51).  The 
Ionic,  more  graceful  and  ele- 
gant,  was  most  flourishing  from 


70  GREECE. 

430  to  3;30  B.  c.  (examples,  pp.  53,  69.)  The  Corinthian  order,  representing  the  more  elabor^t^ 
tastes  of  the  later  luxury  and  wealth,  belongs  to  the  time  after  Alexander,  and  so  passed  to  the 
Romans,  who  used  it  much  more  than  the  Doric  or  Ionic  (example,  p.  126).  The  Greek  archi- 
tectural orders  and  ornamental  forms  were  dominant  throughout  the  times  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire in  all  provinces  but  Egypt.  As  revived  in  Italy  about  1500  A.  d.,  they  became  the  common 
property  of  modem  times.  The  preference  shown  in  modern  architecture  for  Corinthian  f onn» 
is  thus  a  result  of  Roman  and  of  Italian  influence. 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  GREEK  HISTORY. 

The  division  by  lessons  is  made  with  deference  to  the  individual  teacher,  but  it  is  believed 
that  few  classes  could  lengthen  these  review  lessons  with  advantage. 

Some  of  these  questions  are  designedly  made  rather  difficult.  Some  of  them  are  designedly 
repeated.  Exercise  on  them  may  be  deferred  till  after  a  review  of  the  entire  Greek  his. 
tory,  if  desired.  A  complete  mastery  of  them  will  probably  furnish  matter  for  the  number  oC 
lessons  indicated.  The  method  is  again  suggested  of  directing  the  pupil  to  write  down  each 
question  and  answer  in  a  consecutive  sentence.  By  this  method  the  pupil  will  have  a  written 
summary  of  the  period,  and  will  be  saved  the  confusion,  in  preparing  the  recitation,  of  refer- 
ring to  different  pages  of  the  book  whenever  special  points  may  have  escaped  the  memory. 
This  method,  even  if  not  absolutely  required  by  the  teacher,  will  also  be  found  by  the  pupil  the 
readiest  way  to  prepare  recitations  on  the  questions. 

Example,  taken  from  the  opening  questions:— 7%6  most  important  century  of  Greek  history 
is  the  5th  century  b.  o.  It  opens  with  the  events  of  the  Persian  wars,  and  closes  with  the  I'eloiJon- 
nesian  war  and  the  Expedition  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  etc.,  etc. 


FIRST   LESSOK   FOR   REVIEW   OF  GREEK  HISTORY. 

What  century  is  the  most  important  in  Greek  history  ? 

What  events  open  this  century  ?    What  events  close  it  ? 

What  great  names  in  literature  belong  to  it  ?    (P.  67.) 

What  names  distinguished  in  war  and  statesmanship  belong  to  it  f    (Pp.  65,  66.) 

How  long  after  400  did  Greek  independence  last  ?    (P.  58.) 

What  war  before  400  began  the  decline  ?    How  was  the  decline  apparent  ?    (Pp.  54,  55.) 

How  did  Athens  become  obnoxious  to  the  Confederacy  of  Delos,  which  she  founded  ?  (P.  53.) 

What  states  were  embraced  in  the  Confederacy  ?    (P.  50.) 

Why  did  the  triumph  of  Sparta  over  Athens  contribute  to  her  ovra  decay?    (P.  54.) 

What  state  overthrew  the  ascendency  of  Sparta  in  the  4th  century? 

How  long  after  did  Macedonian  intervention  in  Greek  affairs  begin  ? 

Date  the  battle  of  Chseronea.    Why  is  it  important? 

What  coimtries  were  included  in  the  Persian  Empire  conquered  by  Alexander?    (P.  21.) 

What  Greek  states  rose  in  the  East  after  his  campaigns ?    (P.  61.)     What  became  of  them? 


SECOND  LESSON  FOR  REVIEW  OF  GREEK  HISTORY. 

When  does  Greek  written  history  begin  ?    (P.  35.) 
Wbat  famous  Doric  state  was  founded  soon  after  1100  f 
Wbat  was  the  time  of  Lycorgus  ?    (Chronology,  p.  68.) 


QUESTIONS    FOR     WRITTEN     EXERCISE.  71 

Why  were  Spartan  institutions  so  rigid  ?    (P.  39.) 

What  influence  had  Sparta  on  the  Greek  states  after  777  b.  c.  ?    (P.  41.) 

What  had  prevented  discontent  in  the  early  times  of  the  Greek  states  ?    (P.  42.)    ' 

Why  did  popular  discontent  become  general  in  the  6th  century? 

What  were  the  different  ways  of  coping  with  tliis  discontent  ? 

Were  both  adopted  in  Athens  ?    To  what  tribe  did  the  Athenians  belong  ?    (P.  35.) 

How  did  Ionic  character  differ  from  Doric  ? 

Who  was  the  father  of  Athenian  democracy?    (P.  42.)    Who  preserved  his  laws? 

What  statesman,  before  500,  devised  ostracism?    Why  was  this  device  adopted? 

What  was  the  general  size  of  a  Greek  state  ?    (P.  41.) 

What  were  the  extreme  dimensions  of  the  country  ?    (P.  38.) 

What  provinces  were  unimportant  within  these  dimensions  ? 

How  do  Greek  government  and  character  differ  from  the  Eastern  ?    (P.  38.) 

Why  could  not  the  Greek  states  establish  permanent  empires  of  large  size  ?    (Pp.  52,  53.) 


THIRD   LESSOK    FOR   REVIEW   OF   GREEK   HISTORY. 

In  what  departments  have  the  Greeks  excelled  and  controlled  later  periods  of  history? 
(Pp.  51,  52.) 

When  did  Greece  begin  to  make  its  civilization  cosmopolitan?    (P.  58) 

What  architectural  order  corresponds  to  the  time  of  Alexander?    (P.  71.) 

What  order  corresponds  especially  to  the  time  of,  and  after,  the  Peloponnesian  war? 

What  architectural  order  was  dominant  before  the  Peloponnesian  war  ? 

Name  all  countries  in  which  Greek  civilization  w.as  established  by  colonies  ?    (Pp.  38,  39.) 

How  early  were  these  colonies  generally  diffused  in  foreign  countries  ?    (P.  63.) 

In  what  period  did  their  influence  still  continue  ?    (P.  68.) 

In  what  countries  was  Greek  culture  diffused  after  Alexander  ?    (P.  61  and  map.) 

How  long  had  the  New  Empire  of  Egypt  existed  in  the  time  of  Homer  ?    (Pp.  63,  64.) 

What  nation  connected  the  Eastern  world  with  Greece  at  this  time  ? 


FOURTH  LESSON"   FOR   REVIEW   OF   GREEK   HISTORY. 

In  what  century  was  the  New  Empire  of  Egypt  overthrown?    (P.  64.) 

What  contemporary  events  happened  in  Greece  in  this  century?    (P.  63.) 

How  long  had  the  Assyrian  Empire  been  overthrown  at  the  time  of  the  Ionic  revolt? 

(Pp.  63,  64.) 

Against  whom  did  the  lonians  revolt  ?    (Pp.  45,  46,  47.) 

How  long  had  the  Persian  Empire  then  existed  ?    (P.  27.) 

From  what  two  Empires  was  the  Persian  Empire  founded  ?    (P.  20.) 

What  countries  did  it  add  besides  ?    Name  the  extent  of  the  two  preceding  empires  ? 

How  long  had  they  lasted  when  united  by  Persia  ?    (Pp.  20,  64.) 

What  empire  preceded  them  ?    (P.  20.)  ^ 

What  difference  between  Greek  and   Eastern  civilization   is  implied  in  the  battle   of 

Marathon  ?    (P.  49.)    Why  could  not  the  East  remodel  its  discipline  ? 

What  varieties  of  climate  are  embraced  in  the  limits  of  Greece  ?    (P.  38.) 
What  provinces  of  Greece  are  relatively  unimportant  in  Greek  history  ?    (P.  38.) 


72  GREECE. 

What  Btates  are  most  important  ? 

What  is  their  size  as  compared  with  the  whole  country  T 

What  is  the  size  of  the  whole  country  as  compared  with  the  Persian  Empire? 


FIFTH  LESSON  FOR  EEVIEW   OF  GREEK   HISTORY. 

In  what  countries  did  Greek  culture  exist  after  Alexander  ?    {Include  the  colonies.) 
Who  were  the  great  authors  of  Greece  ?    Name  their  works  ? 
Were  there  great  authors  in  Egypt  ? 

What  was  the  extent  of  Greek  astronomic  science  ?    (P.  68.) 
What  was  the  condition  of  sculpture  ?    Of  architecture  ?    (P.  51.) 
What  forms  of  art  were  adopted  by  the  Romans  ?    (Pp.  69,  70.) 
What  literature  was  adopted  by  the  Romans  ?    (P.  52.) 
When  were  this  art  and  literature  revived  ?    (Pp.  52,  71.) 
In  what  century  of  Greek  history  was  Rome  founded  ?    (P.  65.) 
In  what  century  lived  Lycurgus  ?    Solon  ?    Pericles  ? 

What  Greek  state  declined  in  the  century  Rome  was  founded?    (See  "  Pheidon,"  p.  65  ) 
Who  was  its  last  great  king  ?    What  state  replaced  Argos  as  leader  in  Greece  ? 
Why  did  Athens  replace  Sparta  as  leader  in  Greece  after  the  Persian  wars  ?    (P.  50.) 
When  Greek  independence  was  overthrown,  how  long  had  Egypt  ceased  to  exist  as  an 
independent  power  ?    (Compare  pp.  27,  63 ;  or  consult  Synchronism,  p.  64.) 

How  long  had  Assyria  ceased  to  exist  when  Greek  independence  was  overthrown  ? 


SIXTH  LESSON  FOR  REVIEW  OF  GREEK  HISTORY. 

How  long  after  the  Doric  migration  did  Egypt  continue  an  independent  power? 

How  long  after  the  Doric  migration  did  Assyria  continue  an  independent  power  ? 

When  was  Carthage  founded  ?    (P.  27,  and  Synchronism,  p.  64.) 

What  power  established  itself  in  Western  Sicily  ?    (P.  39.) 

What  power  controlled  the  eastern  half?    (P.  39.) 

What  battle  was  fought  in  Sicily  at  the  time  of  the. Persian  wars  ?    (P.  80.) 

Did  the  rivalry  between  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  in  Sicily  continue  after  Alexander  f 
Ans.  Yes. 

When  were  the  Greeks  in  Sicily  nearly  expelled  by  Carthage  ?    Am.  In  b.  c.  275. 

What  power  preserved  the  Greeks  in  Sicily  ?    Am.  The  Roman. 

What  power  sustained  the  Greeks  in  France  (Marseilles)  at  this  time  ?    Am.  The  Roman. 

What  power  preserved  Greek  culture  in  the  Western  Mediterranean  after  b.  c.  275?  Am. 
The  Roman. 

What  power  sustained  and  revived  the  decaying  Greek  culture  of  the  East  in  the  time  just 
preceding  the  Christian  era  ?    Am.  The  Roman. 

What  period  of  history  continued  and  developed  the  influence  of  Greek  civilization  for  all 
later  time  ?    Am.  The  Roman  Imperial  Period. 

When  did  Greek  independence  end  ?    (Synchronism,  p.  65.) 

When  did  Roman  area  begin  rapidly  to  extend?    (Synchronism,  p.  66.) 


\ 


ROME 

TILL  THE   OPENING   OF   THE   CHRISTIAN   ERA. 


EARLY    NATIONS    OF   ITALY. 


In  the  middle  of  the  8  th  century  B.  C,  when  the  city  of  Rome  was 
founded,  the  Assyrian  Empire  was  at  the  height  of  power.  It  had  still  a  cen 
tury  and  a  quarter  of  existence  to  run.    Egypt  did  not  lose  its  independence 


View  on  the  Tiber.    St.  Peter's  in  the  distance,  Hadrian's  tomb  (Papal  Ca.^tle  of  St.  Angelo) 

on  the  right. 

till  two  centuries  and  a  quarter  later  than  the  middle  of  the  8th  century.  The 
Phoenicians,  who  for  so  long  a  time  united  the  civilizations  of  these  countries  and 
bore  them  to  other  nations,  had  already,  in  the  main,  abandoned  the  eastern 


74  ROME. 

half  of  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Greeks,  in  order  to  extend  their  power  in  its 
western  portion.  One  hundred  years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome  the  city  of 
Carthage  had  been  founded  by  them.  This  city,  uniting  imder  its  control  the 
earlier  Phoenician  colonies  of  the  African  coast,  extended  its  influence  in  fol- 
lowing centuries  to  the  shores  of  Spain,  where  Gades  (Cadiz)  was  an  ancient 
Phoenician  settlement,  over  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  the  Balearic  Isles,  and  over 
the  western  portion  of  Sicily  (while  the  Greeks  held  the  rest  of  the  island). 

The  influence  of  Phoenician  and  Greek  intercourse  had  already 
developed  powerful  and  civilized  nations  in  Italy  at  the  time  of  the  foundation 
of  Rome.  These  nations  overshadowed  in  importance,  for  four  centuries  fol- 
lowing this  time,  the  small  Latin  tribe  settled  to  the  south  of  the  lower  Tiber. 

"Italy"  did  not  at  this  time,  nor  did  it  till  the  times  of  Caesar,  b.  c.  50, 
include  the  territory  above  the  peninsula  proper — i.  e.,  the  territory  of  the 
valley  of  the  Padus.  This  belonged  to  Gaul  (Cisalpine  Gaul),  and  was  inhab- 
ited by  Celts  allied  to  those  in  France.  (The  Ligurians  along  the  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  the  Veneti  in  the  district  named  after  them  Venetia,  at  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic,  were  remains  of  non-Aryan  populations  of  small  impor- 
tance for  later  Italian  history.) 

The  Apennines,  which  form,  below  the  Padus  valley,  the  backbone  of 
the  peninsula,  send  out  a  series  of  short  transverse  spurs  to  the  east,  cutting 
up  this  side  of  Italy  into  a  relatively  barren  and  rugged  country.  But  from 
these  mountains  flow  to  the  west  the  rivers  watering  the  fertile  plain  of  Etru- 
ria.  lying  between  the  Amo  and  the  Tiber.  The  inhabitants  of  this  country, 
the  Etruscans,  were  a  powerful  and  highly  civilized  people.  The  Etruscan 
antiquities  of  the  Vatican  are  deeply  interesting.  With  them,  as  with  other 
ancient  nations,  the  habit  of  placing  articles  of  use  or  of  value  in  tombs,  as  offer- 
ings to  the  dead  or  as  memorials,  has  resulted  in  filling  the  modern  museums 
■with  remains  of  great  value  for  historic  study.  The  language  of  this  people  is 
so  far  undeciphered,  and  probably  non- Aryan. 

The  rest  of  Italy,  as  far  as  the  fringe  of  Greek  colonies  reaching  around  the 
southern  coasts,  was  inhabited  by  the  Italic  portion  of  the  Greco-Italic  stock. 

The  small  territory  of  Ijatium  reached  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber 
to  the  promontory  of  Terracina.  Around  the  Latins  were  grouped  (besides  the 
Etruscans  on  the  north)  the  Sabines,  .^uians,  Hernicans,  and  Volscians.  The 
mountain  region  reaching  from  these  settlements  to  the  Adriatic,  and  as  far  as 
Ancona  on  the  north  (t.  «.,  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  Gallic  population)  was 
held  by  the  Umbrians.  West  and  south  of  the  tribes  grouped  around  the 
Latins  were  the  Samnites,  who  controlled  the  rich  plain  of  Campania  from  the 
pioontains  of  Samnium,  and  became  the  dominant  nation  of  the  South  above 


EARLY    NATIONS    OF    ITALY.  75 

the  Greek  colonies,  as  the  Etruscans  were  the  dominant  nation  of  the  North 
below  the  Celts. 

Both  Samnites  and  Etruscans  possessed  a  civilization  based  upon 
their  early  commerce  with  the  Phoenicians,  but  now  overlaid  and  influenced  by 
the  rising  superiority  of  the  Greeks, 
whose  towns,  reaching  all  around 
the  southern  coasts,  gave  to  this 
portion  of  Italy  the  name  of  Magna 
Grecia. 

In  matters  of  civilization 

the  Latin  tribe   was  dependent  on 

these    other    nations,   especially   on 

the  Etruscans,  and  was  much  more 

backward    than    they.      But  when 
■     .      ^    ^.       ^  .,  ,      ,         ,  Etruscan  Tomb  at  Veil, 

this    Latin    tribe  grew   to    be    the 

ruling  nation  of  Italy,  its  language  supplanted  the  other  related  Italic  dia« 
lects  and  the  language  of  the  Etruscans.  Italy  was  thus  welded  into  a  com- 
mon nation,  whose  general  civilization  had  existed  before  its  conquerors  were 
an  important  people,  and  then  became  their  property  also. 

The  history  of  Rome  antedating  the  time  of  the  Christian 
era  (after  which  it  continues  in  the  West  for  500  years  and  in  the 
East  over  1400  j^ears)  has  thtee  natural  divisions — the  time  when 
Rome  controlled  the  small  territory  of  Latium,  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Italy,  and  the  time  of  the  development  of  Roman  rule 
over  the  Mediterranean. 

We  may  simplify  this  threefold  division  into  a  double  one— the 
time  of  internal  development  and  the  time  of  external  expansion. 
These  two  periods  are  best  divided  by  the  date  333  B.  c,  only  ten 
years  removed  from  343,  the  beginning  of  the  Samnite  wars,  which, 
lasting  fifty  years,  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Italy.  An  important 
synchronism  between  Greek  and  Roman  history  is  established  by 
memorizing  this  date. 

Map  Study.— Carthage  ;  map  at  p.  73.  Cadiz  ;  modern  map.  Corsica,  Sardinia ;  p.  73. 
Balearic  Isles;  map  for  western  part  of  Rome's  dominions.  Map  at  p.  73  for  the  Padus.  Ligu- 
ria,  Veneti;  p.  86.  Maps  at  p.  73  for  Apennines,  Etruria,  Amo  (Arnus),  Tiber,  Latium,  Terra- 
cina,  Sabini,  ^qui,  Hernici,  Volscian  range.  Map  at  p.  86  for  the  Adriatic,  Ancona,  Umbria, 
Samnium,  Campania,    Greek  colonies,  p.  29.    Localities  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  reference. 


76  ROME. 


PERIOD   OF  THE    ROMAN    KINGS,    B.  C.  750-510. 

Tradition  derived  the  settlers  of  Latium  from  Trojans 
led  by  ^neas,  who  fled  from  the  Greeks  after  the  capture  of  Troy. 
This  tradition  reveals  at  least  a  sense  of  Latin  relationship  to  the 
Greco-Itahc  stock  settled  in  Asia  Minor,  and  it  is  not  impossible 
that  a  colony  from  the  region  of  Troy  may  have  made  its  way  to 
Italy  by  sea. 

The  site  of  Rome,  fourteen  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  was  determined  by  the  fact  that  here  was,  and  still  is,  the 
head  of  river  navigation,  and  also  the  point  of  frontier  commerce  and 
contact  between  Etruscans,  Sabines,  and  Latins.  Rome  was  therefore 
a  frontier  trading  post  of  connection  with,  and  also  a  military  post 
against,  the  two  bordering  nations  of  the  North  and  West. 

From  750  to  510  B.  C,  that  is,  for  240  years,  Rome  was 
governed  by  a  monarchy.  The  ancient  records  of  this  period  were 
destroyed  in  the  burning  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls  in  390  b.  c,  and 
150  years  after  this  date  the  records  since  used  were  compiled. 
Therefore  the  details  of  the  regal  period  are  partly  mythical. 

The  traditions  of  later  times  name  the  brothers  Romulus 
and  Remus  as  founders  of  tlie  seven-hilled  city.  (These  seven  hills 
are  named  the  Capitoline,  Palatine,  Aventine,  CcBlian,  ^squiline, 
Viminal,  and  Quirinal.) 

The  right  of  intermarriage  was  begged  of  the  neighboring  Sabines 
and  denied.  The  companions  of  Romulus  then  carried  off  wives  for  themselves 
by  violence — "  the  Rape  of  the  Sabines."  This  led  to  a  war  with  the  town  of 
Cures.  The  women  placed  themselves  between  the  two  armies  when  about  to 
join  battle.  A  treaty  was  made  by  which  the  Sabines  of  Cures  settled  at  Rome, 
forming  the  second  tribe,  the  Tities,  so  named  after  their  king  Titus  Tatius. 
From  the  original  Roman  tribe  of  the  Ramnes  an  advisory  senate  of  100  mem- 
bers had  been  named,  to  whom  100  of  the  second  tribe  were  added. 

Numa  Pompilius  was  the  second  king,  and  the  lawgiver  of 
the  new  community.    He  appointed  four  Vestal  virgins,  who  were 


ROMAN     KING^g.  77 

to  preserve  the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta,  the  goddess  of  the  hearth  and 
of  the  family.  Four  augurs  were  appointed  to  inquire  the  will  of  the 
gods.  Four  priests,  headed  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  were  to  have 
in  charge  the  calendar  of  the  state  and  the  rehgious  observances. 

The  Roman  paganism  sprang,  like  the  Greek,  from  the  Nature  worship 
of  the  early  A)yans,  but  this  assumed  with  the  Romans  a  more  practical  and 
utilitarian — a  less  poetic — cast  than  with  the  Greeks.  Certain  spirits  were 
worshiped  as  guardian  deities  of  the  household  possessions  (the  Lares  and 
Penates).  Another  spirit  was  revered  as  guardian  of  the  landmarks  of  the 
farm  (Terminus).  Innumerable  guardian  deities  were  conceived  for  various 
classes  of  objects  and  for  various  mental  abstractions — Peace,  Concord,  Terror, 
Fear,  etc.  Above  these  conceptions  ranked  others,  afterwards  brought  into 
analogy  with  the  Greek  (which  themselves  became  known  by  the  Latin  names), 
such  as  Jupiter,  Mars,  Juno,  etc.  The  Romans  were  excessively  superstitious, 
and  paid  great  attention  to  the  science  of  divination  in  affairs  of  state. 

TuUus  Hostilius  was  third  king.  He  made  Rome  the  head 
of  the  Latia  confederation  of  towns,  thirty  in  number,  in  place  of 
Alba  Longa. 

This  event  is  dated  about  650  B.  c,  and  is  connected  with  the  story  of  three 
Roman  brothers,  the  Horatii,  whose  combat  with  three  brothers  of  Alba,  the 
Curiatii,  was  to  decide  the  contest  between' the  cities.  One  of  the  Horatii  sur- 
vived ;  the  five  others  fell,  giving  the  victory  to  Rome.  At  this  time  the 
inhabitants  of  Alba  were  transferred  to  Rome.  The  leading  Alban  families 
formed  the  third  tribe,  the  Luceres,  now  added  to  the  original  Roman  tribe  of 
the  Ramnes  and  the  Sabine  settlers,  the  Titles,  with  a  corresponding  addi- 
tion of  another  100  members  to  the  senate. 

These  three  tribes  formed  the  body  of  patricians,  a  word  meaning  "  born  of 
a  father," — that  is,  of  a  father  who  was  citizen  of  the  state,  with  full  political 
rights.  The  Roman  citizenship  was  thus  derived  from  the  junction  of  three 
ancient  clanships.  Besides  the  patricians,  other  settlers  multiplied  who  were 
not  given  the  citizenship ;  some  known  as  clients,  dependents  and  followers  of 
the  patricians,  or  as  the  plebs,  i.  e.,  the  multitude,  meaning  the  unprivileged 
multitude. 

A  fourth  king,  Ancus  Martius,  to  whom  is  attributed  the 
first  bridge  across  the  Tiber  and  the  founding  of  the  port  of  Ostia,, 


78 


HOME; 


was  followed  by  the  fifth  king,  Tarquiniiis  Priscus.  1*0  him  is 
attributed  the  still  existing  Cloaca  Maxima,  an  immense  arched 
sewer  for  draining  the  marshy  ground  around  the  Palatine  Hill. 

The  use  of  the  arch  was  borrowed  from  Etruria.  Tarquinius  Priscus  is 
said  to  have  been  a  rich  Etruscan  who  settled  in  Rome  and  was  made  guardian 
of  the  children  of  Ancus  Martius,  but  effected  his  own  election  by  the  people- 
Various  regal  insignia,  borrowed  from  Etruscan  use,  are  attributed  to  this  king 
— the  golden  diadem,  the  purple  embroidered  robe  (toga  picta),  the  ivory  chair 
(sella  curalis),  and  the  fasces,  a  bundle  of  rods  bound  round  an  axe,  the  emblem 
of  executive  power.     These  were  borne  by  lictors. 


To  Servius  Tullius,  the  sixth  king,  are  attributed  the  earliest 
city  walls,  of  which  some  remains  are  still  to  be  seen. 

After  him  is  named  the  "  Servian  "  constitution  (about  550  b.  c).  This  was  essen- 
tially a  reform  like  that  of  Solon  at  Athens,  about  the  same  time,  which  extended  the  duties  of 
military  service  to  the  plebs  by  making  property  instead  of  birth  the  condition  of  service.  The 
people  were  divided  into  five  classes,  according  to  the  value  of  their  farms,  and  within  these 
classes  into  "  centuries,"  each  "  century  "  casting  one  vote  in  the  assembly  of  the  "  centuries.'" 
The  wealthiest  class  was  allotted  such  a  number  of  centuries  that  its  vote  outnumbered  all  the 
other  classes  added  together,  thus  keeping  the  balance  of  power  with  the  large  property 
holders.  It  is  not  certain  what  political  rights,  beyond  that  of  voting  an  aggressive  war,  were 
accorded  the  assembly  of  "  centuries  "  in  the  royal  period. 

During  the  republic,  soon  after  instituted,  this  assembly  voted  at  the  elections  of  state 
officers  and  on  the  acceptance  or  rejectioa  of  the  laws,  decided  peace  or  war,  and  was  the 
court  of  final  judicial  appeal. 

The  three  patrician  tribes  were  originally  divided  into  ten  curiaj  each,  and  the  curiae 

were  again  subdivided  into  gentcs,  or  fami- 

-^:^^.L----~-      .  lies.    Thus  the  assembly  of  the  curiae  was  an 

-"  ^  '  assembly  of  patricians  alone.    The  assem- 

~-  .  '    ,  ^        "  bly  of  the  centuries  was  one  of  the  whole 

people,  in  which  the  heavy  property  owners 

had  a  controlling  voice.    But   the   Servian 

constitution  had  made  a  local  division  of 

thirty  tribes  for  purposes  of  enrollment  and 

census.    Hence   a   third  assembly,  that  of 

the  "tribes,"  which  consisted,  however,  of 

plebeians  alone,  because  the  patricians  had 

already  their  own   independent  concourse. 

The  "comitia  curiata"  then   consisted  of 

patricians,  the  "comitia  centuriata"  of  patricians  and  plebeians  together,  and  the  "comitia 

Iributa  "  of  plebeians. 

The  "  comitia  centuriata  '♦  became  the  important  public  assembly. 


Cloaca  Maxima  (the  great  sewer)  at  Rome. 


ROMAN    KINGS. 


79 


The  seventh  king  of  Rome,  Tarquinius  Superbus,  was 

the  last.     By  arbitrary  actions  he  aUenated  the  people,  who  expelled 
him,  B.  c.  510,  and  organized  a  republic. 

Doubts  ai*e  expressed  by  historians  as  to  the  number  of  kings 
and  details  of  their  reigns,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  records 
explained,  but  no  doubt  prevails  about  the  essential  facts  relating  to 
government  and  organism  in  the  royal  period. 

Map  Study.— Troy ;  p.  29.  Site  of  Rome ;  see  section  maps  of  Italy  during  regal  period. 
Seven  Hills  ;  see  section  map  for  "Map  of  the  Roman  Empire."  Cures,  Alba  Longa,  Ostia; 
Bee  section  maps,  p.  73. 

In  the  section  map  for  "  Latium  during  the  regal  period  "  the  color  is  extended  over  South- 
ern Etruria,  from  the  presumption  that  the  three  last  kings,  of  Etruscan  origin,  were  rather 
conquerors  than  emigrants.  It  is  more  than  possible  that  the  patriotism  of  the  later  tradition 
has  forgotten  or  passed  over  an  actual  Etruscan  ascendency  over  Rome  at  this  time. 

SYNCHRONISM  OF  THE  ROYAL  PERIOD. 


.2  fl^oi 

f3  1— I    02 

cj   sS   ^   g 
O  43  rj   ^^ 

s  ^^^  I 
>%pH  ©"is 

J2   b>   DC   O 

'^    O        Ti 
"-3  on  o*^  d 

o  ®'S  9 


Romulus,  about  750  b.  c . . 


Tullus  Hostilius,  about  650 


Servius  Tullius,  about  550 
B.  c 

Tarquinius  Superbus,  ex- 
pelled 510  B.  c 

Roman  republic  follows, 
confined  to  Latium 


100  years  after  the  founding  of  Car- 
thage, 
100  years  after  Lycurgus. 
250  years  after  Homer. 
350  years  after  Doric  migration. 
550  years  after  the  Phoenicians  had 

reached  Ireland  and  Britain, 
1250  years  after  close  of  Old  Empire 

of  Egypt. 
1250  years  after  known  beginnings  of 
Chaldaea. 
r  25  years  before  fall  of  Assyria  and 
rise  of  Babylonia  and  Media. 
50  years  before   Nebuchadnezzar  of 
Babylon. 
j  Cyrus  founder  of  the  Persian  Empire 
I      about  550  b.  c. 

j  Hippias   expelled  from   Athens,  510 
/      B.  c. 

<  Ionic  revolt  and  Persian  wars  follow. 


80  Rome: 


THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC,  FROM  500  TO  350  B.  C. 

The  constitution  of  the  republic  gave  the  power  of  the  kings  to  two 
yearly  elected  consuls.  Tlie  shortness  of  term,  and  the  check  of  one  consul  on 
the  other,  deprived  the  office  of  much  real  power.  The  quaestors  (treasurers 
and  paymasters)  were  only  for  a  short  time  appointed  by  the  consuls,  then  by 
the  senate,  at  last  by  the  people.  In  case  of  urgent  necessity,  a  dictator  might 
be  appointed  with  absolute  power  for  six  months. 

The  real  power  of  the  state  was  the  hereditary  senate — already,  under 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  doubled  by  the  addition  to  the  original  number  of  an  equal 
number  of  plebeian  families,  and  now  again,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings, 
filled  up  with  new  plebeian  blood.  But  intermarriage  with  the  patricians  was 
forbidden,  and  while  the  plebeians  might  vote,  they  could  not  be  elected  to 
state  offices.  Besides  the  social  discontent  thus  caused  there  was  also  economic 
discontent.  A  plebeian  might  be  rich,  and  often  was ;  but  the  bulk  of  the 
plebeians  were  poor,  and  their  condition  generally,  at  the  opening  of  the 
republic,  became  rapidly  worse.  The  burdens  of  military  service  fell  on  them 
unequally,  as  no  pay  was  given  the  army.  A  rich  man  could  serve  and  hire 
labor  on  his  lands  while  absent,  the  poor  man  could  not.  The  taxes,  as  always 
in  history,  weighed  most  heavily  on  those  least  able  to  bear  them. 

Inequality  was  also  felt  in  the  distribution  of  conquered  lands.  These  were 
mainly  treated  as  public  domain,  to  be  rented  out  to  the  highest  bidder.  It 
became  usual,  after  so  renting  these  lands,  to  leave  them  in  the  hands  of  those 
who  obtained  them  without  collecting  the  dues  of  the  state  ;  for  the  same  body, 
the  senate,  which  controlled  payment  of  dues,  distributed  the  lands,  and  was 
tempted  to  favor  its  own  order.  In  this  injustice  the  rich  plebeian  shared  with 
the  patrician  families.  Thus,  while  the  poor  grew  poorer,  the  rich  became 
richer.  The  laws  of  debt  allowed  the  creditor  to  enslave,  sell,  or  even  kill  his 
debtor. 

When,  in  495  B.  C,  an  unfortunate  debtor,  who  had  been  a 
captain,  escaped  from  his  prison  and  appeared,  appealing  for  protec- 
tion, in  the  Forum,  the  populace  demanded  relief  of  the  senate.  An 
attack  by  the  Volscians,  a  neighboring  tribe,  was  announced,  and 
one  of  the  consuls  promised  a  reduction  of  debts.  The  people, 
having  taken  up  arms  and  conquered  the  Volscians,  were  then 
refused  assistance.    In  the  following  year  the  same  deception  was 


THE    EARLY    REPUBLIC.  81 

practised.  The  plebeians  now  threatened  secession  from  the  com- 
monwealth, abandoned  the  city,  and  would  not  return  until  they 
were  accorded  popular  magistrates,  called  Tribunes  of  the  People. 

These  annually  elected  tribunes  might  interpose  their  veto 
on  any  project  or  measure  considered  prejudicial  to  the  plebs,  or 
block  the  wheels  of  government  if  their  rights  were  denied  them. 
Armed  with  this  Aveapon,  the  plebeians  began  an  agitation  for 
social  and  political  equality,  which  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
right  of  intermarriage,  and  in  the  gradual  acquisition  of  the  privi- 
lege to  serve  in  the  various  offices  of  state.  This  struggle  lasted 
seriously  for  a  century  and  a  half,  till  about  B.  c.  350.  It  ended 
entirely  by  B.  c.  300,  with  the  complete  triumph  of  the  plebeians. 
The  old  patricians  continued  to  form  an  aristocracy  of  birth, 
though  no  longer  one  of  privilege. 

For  the  protection  of  the  plebeians  by  written  laws,  a  commission 
was  sent  to  Athens  about  450,  which  returned  with  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables,  so  called  from  the  tablets  of  brass  on  which  they 
were  engraved,  and  which  were  set  up  before  the  senate-house. 

During  the  eariy  republican  period,  b.  c.  500  to  350,  Rome, 
allied  with  the  Hernicans,  forced  the  Sabines,  ^quians,  and  Vol- 
scians  to  recognize  its  ascendency,  and  to  accept  a  league  with  the 
city  on  its  own  terms. 

How  comparatively  small  was  the  Roman  territory,  may  be 
argued  from  the  war  with  Yeii,  an  Etruscan  city  only  twelve  miles 
beyond  the  Tiber,  which  lasted  nearly  a  century,  ending  with  the 
conquest  of  the  city  in  396. 

The  Etruscan  power  was  thus  weakened  on  the  south, 
when  the  Gauls  attacked  it  on  the  north,  and  forced  their  way  into 
Etruria.  The  Etruscans  appealed  to  their  recent  enemy  for  help. 
The  Romans  sent  an  embassy,  which  took  part  in  an  attack  on  the 
Gauls.  The  latter  demanded  reparation.  When  this  was  refused, 
they  marched  on  Rome,  and  defeated  its  army  on  the  Allia,  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Tiber. 

The  Gauls  then  entered  the  city,  burned  it,  slaughtered  the 


82 


HOME. 


inhabitants  who  had  not  fled,  and  besieged  the  garrison  in  the 
Capitol  for  seven  months,  b.  c.  390.  The  cackling  of  geese  kept  in 
the  Capitol  awakened  a  brave  soldier  and  saved  the  fortress  from  a 
night  surprise.  The  Gauls  finally  withdrew  on  payment  of  1,000 
pounds  of  gold.  The  slight  effect  of  the  Gallic  invasion  on  the 
later  fortunes  of  Kome  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  Italian 
nations  in  general  suffered  about  equally. 

Map  Study.— Veii,  the  Allia  ;  see  maps  at  p.  73. 


To  the  early  days  of  the  republic  belong  the  stories  of  Horatius  Cocles  and  Mucins 
Scaevola,  of  Coriolanus,  and  of  Cincinnatus. 

In  507  Lars  Porsena,  king  of  the  Etruscan  Clusium,  had  attacked  Rome  with  the  whole 
force  of  Etruria.    Tradition  relates  that  Horatius  Cocles  defended,  single  handed,  the  bridge 
over  the  Tiber,  while  it  was  being  broken  down  behind  him  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the 
king's  army,  and  then  saved  his  own  life  by  swimming 
the  Tiber  in  full  armor. 

Mucius  Scaevola,  penetrating  to  the  tent  of  Lars 
Porsena,  slew  his  secretary,  whom  he  mistook  for  the 
king.  Being  then  seized  by  the  guards,  he  held  his  hand 
in  a  basin  of  glowing  coals,  to  prove  his  still  undaunted 
courage,  and  moved  Lars  Porsena  to  retreat  by  the  as- 
surance ttiat  three  hundred  young  Romans  had  sworn  to 
accomplish  the  deed  if  he  should  fail. 

Coriolanus  was  a  young  patrician  who  proposed, 
during  a  famine  in  491,  to  withhold  the  com  bought  up 
in  Sicily  and  Etruria  by  the  senate  for  the  people,  un- 
less they  would  abandon  their  newly  granted  tribunes. 
For  this  he  was  summoned  by  the  tribunes  before 
the  assembly  of  the  tribes,  and  condemned  to  death. 
Coriolanus  made  his  escape  to  the  Volscians,  headed 
their  army  against  his  native  city,  and  ravaged  the 
farms  of  the  plebeians.  His  mother  came,  with  a  band 
of  matrons,  when  he  was  five  miles  from  the  gates,  and 
besought  him  to  spare  Rome.  He  yielded  to  her  en- 
treaties, and  sacrificed  his  own  life  to  the  rage  of  the 
Volscians. 

Cincinnatus  was  made  dictator  in  458  b.  c,  be- 
cause the  -^qnians  had  defeated  a  large  Roman  army. 
The  embassy  of  the  senate  found  him  at  the  plow,  and 

his  wife  was  obliged  to  fetch  his  toga  from  the  house  before  he  could  receive  them.  He 
rescued  the  endangered  army,  defeated  the  iEquians,  and  in  sixteen  days,  resigning  his  oflSce 
of  dictator,  returned  quietly  to  his  farm. 

Quintus  Curtius  is  said  to  have  ridden  Into  a  chasm  in  the  Forum  to  appease,  by  this 
living  sacrifice,  the  anger  of  the  gods,  which  the  newly  opened  gulf  portended. 


Roman  wearing  the  Toga. 

{Bronze  Statue  from  Pompeii, 

Naples  Museum.) 


THE    fiARLY    REPUBLIC.  S3 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  EARLY  REPUBLIC. 

Republic  founded B.  c.  510 

Tribunes  of  the  People , "  "  495 

Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables "  451 

TakingofVeii "  396 

Burning  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls •-  "  390 

Plebs  admitted  to  the  prsetorship  (administration  of  justice),  the  last 

important  oflBce  from  which  they  had  been  excluded.. "  337 

Temple  of  Concord "  300 

Among  the  offices  to  which  the  plebs  demanded  and  gradually  acquired  eligibility  be- 
sides those  of  consul  and  dictator,  were  those  of  praetors  (administrators  of  justice),  of  quaestors 
(treasurers  and  paymasters),  and  of  censors,  the  officers  who  had  charge  of  public  morals,  of 
the  enrollment  of  citizens,  and  of  nominations  for  vacancies  in  the  senate. 

The  sediles  were  officers  of  the  market  and  of  police,  elected  by  the  assembly  of  the  plebs. 

Curule  aediles,  in  charge  of  the  public  games,  were  created  at  first  for  the  patricians,  and 
then  also  made  open  to  the  plebs. 

Down  to  450  the  patricians  held  their  ground  so  firmly  as  to  constantly  attempt  the  over- 
throw of  the  tribunate.  After  450  the  period  of  concession,  but  with  constant  resistance, 
began.  The  struggle  was  complicated  by  several  causes.  Not  only  had  the  tribunes  power 
to  block  the  wheels  of  government  agamst  the  patrician  party,  but  one  tribune  might  block 
the  action  of  another.  Thus,  in  the  quarrels  caused  by  financial  distress  and  monopoly  of 
domain  land,  the  rich  plebeians  sided  with  the  patricians,  and  the  power  of  one  plebeian  trib- 
une might  be  turned  against  another.  The  patricians  had  also  their  party  among  the  plebs— 
viz.,  the  clients,  their  dependents.  As  the  patricians  yielded  up  one  office  after  another,  they 
created  new  offices  for  themselves,  by  which  a  portion  of  power  given  the  old  office  was  taken 
away,  and  the  new  office  became  a  new  object  of  struggle.  Thus  the  curule  aediles,  censorship, 
and  praetorship  were  successively  created  and  successively  won  from  the  patricians. 

The  struggle  was  again  complicated  by  the  existence  of  the  different  assemblies,  and  the 
conflict  between  them.  At  first  the  comitia  curiata,  patrician  assembly,  had  the  privilege  of 
passing  judgment  on  laws  made  by  the  assembly  of  centuries  (comitia  centuriata).  But  the 
laws  of  the  comitia  tributa  were  declared  binding  after  450.  The  patricians  then  took  part  in 
this  assembly,  which  was  afterwai'ds  practically  the  same  as  the  comitia  centuriata,  and  the 
Publilian  Law,  339,  compelled  the  assembly  of  the  patrician  curiae  to  legalize  all  laws  of  the 
comitia  centuriata  and  tributa. 


ORGANISM  OF  THE  ROMAN  STATE  IN  350  B.C. 

From  the  foregroing-  chapter  it  is  plain  that,  in  350  b.  c,  (the  time  when  the  Mace- 
donian power  began  to  interfere  among  the  Greek  states,  which  so  shortly  after  lost  their 
independence)  the  Roman  power  was  still  confined  to  a  small  portion  of  Italy.  And  this  date 
is  four  hundred  years  after  the  foundation  of  Rome.  On  the  other  hand,  within  the 
three  hundred  years  next  following,  the  territory  of  Rome  extended  Itself,  first  over  Italy  and 


84 


ROME. 


then  over  all  the  conntries  bordering  the  Mediterranean— i.  e.,  over  North  Africa,  Spain, 
France,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt. 

In  350  B.  C.  the  territory  controlled  by  Rome  was  about  125  miles  long  b}'  60  broad.  It 
reached  froia  the  Tiber  to  the  Liris— from  the  coast  to  the  crest  of  the  Apenuinep.    The  cities 

of  the  Latins  were  connected*  with  Rome 
by  a  league,  which  gave  the  latter  pre* 
cedence  and  direction,  but  allowed  the  for- 
mer many  of  the  privileges  of  Roman  citi- 
zens, and  gave  them  their  share  of  lands 
conquered  from  the  Sabines,  iEquians,  and 
Volscians. 

The  territory  was  made  secure  by 
a  system  of  soldier  colonies.  Each  conquest 
had  been  confirmed  and  consolidated  by  the 
establishment  of  such  colonies.  Allotments 
of  land  were  systematically  made  on  and 
near  each  advance  of  frontier  to  soldier 
farmers,  whose  interest  bound  them  to  its 
protection,  On  the  other  hand,  conquered 
tribes  were  not  ruled  as  slaves.  According 
to  the  loyalty  or  importance  of  different 
places,  they  were  allowed  more  or  less  of 
Roman  privileges.  Among  individuals  of  a 
single  locality  there  was  also  a  gradation  of  privilege,  reaching  up  to  full  citizenship. 

The  strenii;h  of  the  Roman  rule  rested  on  the  absence  of  exclusi  veness.  The  Romans 
made  it  a  principle  not  to  ask,  after  victory  won,  severer  terms  than  those  demanded  before 
battle  was  given.  They  did  not  provoke  the  spirit  of  desperation.  This  spirit  of  moderation 
in  victory  had  much  to  do  with  their  success.  Its  policy  is  in  interesting  contrast  to  the  arbi- 
trary and  grasping  attitude  of  the  Greek  states  toward  their  fellows  as  they  successively,  after 
the  Persian  wars,  attempted  to  establish  ascendencies. 

The  same  spirit  of  politic  compromise,  mingled  with  tenacity,  is  apparent  in  the  class  dis- 
putes within  the  commonwealth.  Above  the  differences  of  interest  and  of  classes,  the  Roman 
character  was  distinguished  by  most  important  resemblances.  The  organism  of  the  family  was 
of  the  strictest  kind.  The  father  had  absolute  power  over  the  chDdren,  even  power  of  life  and 
death,  such  was  the  respect  for  the  principle  of  authority.  He  was  obeyed  by  the  children 
through  life./  (The  Greek  was  known  by  an  individual  name,  the  Roman  was  known  by  his 
family  name.)  Just  as  the  individual  was  subordinate  to  the  family,  the  family  was  snbordi- 
n&te  to  the  state.  All  tendency  to  individual  self-assertion  was  repressed.  Only  at  his  funeral 
was  the  citizen  allowed  to  be  glorified.  Then  the  effigies  of  his  ancestors  were  borne  in  pro- 
cession to  the  Forum,  and  the  orator  of  the  occasion  rehearsed  their  deeds  and  virtues  in  turn, 
concluding  with  those  of  the  deceased. 


Roman  Coin,  4th  Century,  with  Head  of  Janue.* 


♦  The  type  here  represented  weighed  one  pound,  was  of  copper,  and  was  cast,  not  stamped. 
Its  use  illustrates  the  simple  habits  and  backward  civilization  of  Rome  at  this  period.  Janus, 
according  to  old  traditions  king  of  the  aborigines  of  Rome,  was  originally  the  Sun-god  of  the 
Latins,  and  hence  is  represented  with  two  faces— the  rising  and  setting  sun.  Beginnings  were 
Ciacred  to  him  (January).    Hence  entrances  and  doors  (jantia)  were  decorated  with  his  image. 


ORGANISM.  85 

The  system  of  public  defence  was  one  in  which  the  state  was  protected  by  its  citizens 
without  compensation.  Especially  in  the  organism  of  the  army  was  the  wonderful  capacity 
for  discipline  apparent.  At  the  time  we  have  reached,  the  phalanx  had  been  abandoned  by  the 
Romans.  The  Roman  legion  fought  in  open  order,  each  man  separated  from  his  fellow  by  suf- 
ficient space  to  allow  the  use  of  the  sword,  and  the  spear  was  reduced,  for  most  of  the  army, 
to  a  heavy  javelin,  of  which  each  soldier  carried  two,  for  thrust  or  throw  at  the  opening  of  the 
combat,  after  which  the  sword  was  used. 

The  military  array  in  open  order  was  in  a  series  of  ranks,  five  or  six  in  succession, 
arranged  like  the  alternate  squares  of  a  checker-board.  The  front  rank  was  composed  of  the 
vigorous  young  men,  the  second  of  the  sturdy  and  fully  grown ;  in  the  third  were  the  tried 
veterans,  behind  them  the  recruits,  or  less  able  soldiers.  These  rear  ranks  opened  combat  by 
advancing  through  the  open  spaces  of  the  three  front  ranks  as  skirmishers.  After  expending 
their  strength  and  their  missiles,  they  retired  in  the  same  way.  The  arrangement  of  the  three 
main  ranks  allowed  each  in  turn  to  retire  through  the  intervals  of  the  one  behind  it,  without  dis- 
order. At  the  critical  or  decisive  moment  the  veterans  took  their  turn.  These  alone  were  still 
armed  with  the  heavy  spear  of  the  phalanx.  Closing  their  ranks,  and  supported  by  those 
behind  them,  they  then  advanced  for  the  final  struggle.  For  light  troops  and  light  cavalry  the 
Romans  relied  on  their  allies.    The  legion  coasisted  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  men. 

Such  was  the  spirit  of  discipline  that,  during  the  Samnite  wars  of  the  following  period,  a 
young  general  was  sentenced  to  death  by  his  superior  for  oflTering  battle  in  his  absence,  against 
orders,  and  gaining  a  victory.  With  diflacnlty  could  the  petition  of  the  senate  and  the  people 
save  his  life. 

In  hard  fought  battles,  where  defeat  was  imminent,  there  were  known  cases  in  which  a 
leading  officer,  with  certain  religious  ceremonies,  oflered  the  sacrifice  of  his  life  for  his  country, 
and  then  casting  himself  alone  into  the  ranks  of  the  enemy,  spread  confusion  and  panic  by  the 
desperate  valor  of  his  death.    Two  victories  of  the  Samnite  wars  were  won  by  this  devotion. 

Officers  of  state,  without  class  exclusion,  were  elected  by  the  concourse  of  the  people  at 
the  close  of  the  period  ending  about  350,  and  laws  were  made  by  this  assembly;  but  the  sov- 
ereign and  directing  body  of  the  state,  in  foreign  aflfairs,  was  the  senate,  and  the  internal 
struggle  of  the  classes  must  not  cause  us  to  forget  its  importance. 

The  senate  was  at  once  an  executive  and  consulting  body — executive  in  the  sense  that  its 
directions  and  orders  went  into  immediate  effect,  without  control  of  an  independent  executive. 
It  not  only  made  general  regulations,  but  gave  orders  in  individual  and  special  cases.  Its 
members  (300)  held  office  for  life.  Its  numbers  were  kept  ftdl  by  nomination  of  the  censors, 
and  their  selection  was  generally  made  from  those  who  had  filled  a  state  office. 

No  parallel  institution  has  ever  been  known  in  history.  The  union  of  ministerial  and  de- 
bating functions  in  the  English  Parliament  is  a  parallel  to  a  certain  degree.  But  whereas  the 
House  of  Lords  is  an  assembly  of  birth,  and  the  House  of  Commons  an  assembly  of  popular 
election,  the  Roman  senate  was  neither.  Neither  has  any  state  in  history  a  parallel  to  the 
existence  of  a  popular  government  without  monarchy  which  continued  to  maintain  unchanged 
an  aristocracy  of  blood.  For  we  remember  that,  although  plebeians  sat  in  the  senate  and 
gained  admission  to  every  office  of  state,  the  patricians  still  continued  as  an  aristocracy  of  birth. 

To  this  singular  union  of  conservative  and  progressive  tendencies,  of  the  spirit  of  compro- 
mise with  the  sternest  discipline,  above  all  to  a  conception  of  conquest  which,  so  far  from 
stripping  the  vanquished  of  their  freedom,  incorporated  them  in  the  system  of  the  victors  and 
made  them  members  of  it,  the  Roman  state  owed  the  triumphs  of  its  later  times.  To  the  Greek 
belonged  the  genius  of  art  and  of  culture ;  to  the  Roman,  the  genius  of  politics  and  of  law, 


86  ROME. 

CONQUEST  AND  CONSOLIDATION  OF  ITALY,   B.  C.  350-270. 

The  Samnite  Wars. — Just  ten  years  before  the  date  which  has 
been  fixed  in  Greek  history  as  the  turning  point  of  Alexander's 
conquests  in  the  East  (battle  of  Issus,  333),  began  the  "  Samnite 
wars,"  which,  though  known  under  this  name,  were  no  less  wars  with 
the  Etruscans.  They  lasted  fifty  years,  and  ended  in  290  ^vith  the 
conquest  of  all  Etruscan  and  Samnite  territory,  together  with  the 
connecting  eastern  portions  of  Italy. 

The  Roman  territory  then  reached  up  to  Cisalpine  Gaul  on 
the  north,  and  down  to  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  south.  These 
last  were  conquered  ten  years  later  (280),  and  the  whole  of  **  Italy," 
as  conceived  before  the  times  of  Caesar,  was  subject  to  Roman  power. 
The  same  process  of  consolidation,  by  soldier  colonies,  by  military 
roads,  by  concession  of  political  rights  and  Eoman  citizenship  in 
various  grades,  which  had  secured  Latium,  was  applied  to  Italy  in 
general. 

At  the  opening  of  these  wars  the  Samnites  covered  and  controlled 
more  territory  than  the  Latins.  Of  kindred  blood,  they  were  not  lacking  in 
determination  and  warlike  bravery,  but  they  were  less  compactly  organized, 
and  there  were  feuds  between  the  hardy  Samnites  of  the  mountains  and  their 
Grecianized  and  more  effeminate  brethren  in  the  rich  plains  of  Campania. 
These  feuds  led  to  the  first  intervention  of  the  Romans  beyond  the  Liris.  The 
powerful  city  of  Capua,  in  its  conflict  with  the  mountain  tribes,  first  begged 
assistance  from  Rome.  Tliis  was  refused,  and  the  Capuans  then  submitted 
themselves  to  Rome  as  subjects.  Rome  now  ordered  the  mountain  Samnites 
to  vacate  the  territory  of  Capua,  which  they  refused. 

The  first  Samnite  war  resulted,  and  lasted  two  years  (M3-341).  The 
Samnites  were  beaten  in  the  battles  of  Mt.  Gaurus,  near  Cumse,  and  Suessula. 
The  treaty  of  peace  secured  Capua  to  the  Romans,  but  surrendered  another 
important  town,  Teanum. 

The  Latin  cities,  not  satisfied  with  their  share  of  booty,  demanded  an 
equal  share  in  the  Roman  government.  This  was  refused,  and  led  to  the  Latin 
war  (340-338).  Rome  was  saved  by  her  soldier  colonies  (battles  of  Mt.  Vesu- 
vius and  Trifanum).  The  Latin  league  with  Rome  was  dissolved,  and  sepa- 
rate arrangements  and  treaties  were  made  with  each  separate  Latin  city,  gener- 


CONQUEST    OF    ITALY 


87 


ally  according  them  the  Roman  citizenship  without  suffrage,  which  was  also 
given  the  Campanian  cities.  The  city  of  Antium  had  to  give  up  her  ships  of 
war,  and  their  prows  (rostra)  were  placed  in  the  Roman  Forum,  whence  the 
word  rostrum. 

The  expansion  of  Roman  power  in  Campania  led  to  the  second  Sam- 
nite  war  (326-304),  in  which  the  Etruscans,  the  minor  Italic  tribes,  and  the 
Gauls  combined  with  the  Samnites.  After  the  surprise  and  surrender  of  a 
Roman  army  in  the  Caudine  Pass,  the  senate  rejected  the  peace  made  by  their 
consuls,  whom  they  delivered  up  to  the  Samnites.  The  Etruscans  were  beaten 
on  the  Vadimonian  Lake,  and  the  Samnites  at  Longula  (north  of  Antium). 

The  conquered  peoples  were  obliged  to  surrender  territory  for  Roman 
settlers,  but  were  admitted  to  a  league  giving  them  Roman  privileges. 

During  this  war  the  Appian  Way  was  built  through  Latium  and  Campania. 
But  when  the  Romans  began  to  build  military  roads,  with  fortresses,  between 
Samnium  and  Etruria,  the  third  Samnite  war  (298-290)  began.  All  the  Italian 
peoples  joined  with  the  Gauls  against  Rome.  The  Roman  victory  of  Sentinum, 
in  Umbria,  was  decisive.  The  settlement  of  Venusia  with  20,000  soldier  colo- 
nists (290)  sealed  this  victory.    The  Samnites  made  peace  on  the  old  conditions. 

Roman  Conquest  of  the  Greek  States  of  Italy. — The  Luca- 
nians  of  South  Italy  had  been  accorded  dominion  over  the  smaller 
Greek  cities,  but  these  preferred 
the  rule  of  Rome,  to  which  they 
appealed.  The  Lucanians  be- 
gan to  negotiate  a  new  war 
against  Rome.  The  Senonian 
Gauls  first  rose,  but  were  al- 
most annihilated,  and  the  Ro- 
man colony  of  Sena  Gallica, 
above  A  neon  a,  was  founded  on 
their  territory.  The  Etruscans 
were  next  once  more  defeated, 
and  became  dependent  on  Rome 
under  mild  conditions,  283. 
The  Greek  colony  of  Thurii,  which  had  appealed  to  Rome,  was 
freed  from  the  Lucanians,  282,  and  most  of  the  Greek  colonies  of 
the  South  were  willingly  incorporated  undpr  Roman  rule.     But  th^ 


Greek  Temples  at  Pseetnm,  on  the  coast  below 

Naples. 


88  ROME. 

Greeks  of  Tarentum  now  took  up  arms,  and  summoned  Pyrrhus, 
the  king  of  Epirus,  to  their  assistance  (280-276). 

Pyrrhus  had  become  king  of  Epirus  in  306,  but  was  expelled, 
and  then  passed  several  years  at  the  Macedonian  Greek  courts  of 
Syria  and  Egypt.  He  fought  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Ipsus, 
in  301,  after  which  the  final  settlement  of  the  Alexandrine  states 
was  made.  Being  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of  ancient  times,  a 
claimant  to  the  Macedonian  throne,  and  intimate  with  the  leading 
men  immediately  succeeding  the  times  of  Alexander,  great  interest 
attaches  to  his  campaigns  in  Italy.  They  brought  about  the  first 
contact  of  the  Eomans  with  the  Macedonian  Greeks. 

A  Roman  fleet  of  ten  ships,  dispatched  for  the  protection  of  Thurii,  had  cast 
anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Tarentum.  This  was  in  violation  of  a  treaty,  made 
twenty  years  before,  by  which  Roman  ships  were  forbidden  to  cruise  around 
Southern  Italy.  A  mob  attacked  the  vessels  vnthout  warning,  seized  several  of 
them,  and  sold  the  crews  into  slavery.  A  Roman  embassy,  sent  to  demand 
satisfaction,  was  insulted  by  the  populace.  This  led  to  a  Roman  invasion  of 
the  territory  of  Tarentum,  which  accordingly  summoned  the  Macedonian, 
Pyrrhus,  to  the  conquest  of  all  Italy. 

Pyrrhus  landed  in  Italy  vnth  a  phalanx  of  25,000  Greeks  and  20  elephants. 
These  last  threw  the  Romans  into  disorder,  and  caused  their  defeat  at  Heraclea. 
But  the  senate  refused  to  treat  for  peace,  although  a  general  revolt  in  Southern 
Italy  ensued.  In  279  Pyrrhus  defeated  the  Romans  at  Asculum  with  such 
diflBculty  that  he  cried,  "  Another  victory  like  this,  and  we  are  lost."  Pyrrhus 
now  crossed  to  Sicily,  at  the  call  of  Syracuse,  which  he  relieved  from  siege  by 
the  Carthaginians.  (These  were  in  temporary  alliance  with  Rome.)  With 
equal  celerity  the  Greek  SiciUan  cities  accepted,  and  then  expelled,  the  gover- 
nors of  Pyrrhus,  who  had  imported  the  style  and  methods  of  the  Eastern 
satraps.  Pyrrhus  once  more  landed  in  Italy  at  the  call  of  Tarentum,  and  was 
defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Beneventum  (275).  By  the  use  of  pitch  torches  the 
elephants  were  frightened,  and  threw  the  phalanx  into  disorder.  Pyrrhus 
abandoned  Italy,  of  which  Rome  now  remained  mistress. 

Map  Study.— See  map  for  Italy,  p.  86,  and  section  map  for  theatre  of  war  during  Samnite 
wars  for  the  following:— River  Liris,  Capua,  Mt.  Gaums,  Sueesula,  Mt.  Vesuvius,  Trifannm, 
Antium,  Caudlne  PaHH,  Vadimonian  Lake,  Appian  Way,  Sentinum,  Venusia,  Lucania,  Sena 
Oallica,  Ancona,  Thurii  (see  Copia),  Tarentum,  Heraclea,  Asculum,  Syracuse,  Beneventum, 
^Spirns,  Bee  map  at  p.  29, 


THE    PUNIC    WARS.  89 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   ROMAN    CONQUEST   OF  ITALY   BEYOND  LATIUM. 


First  Samnite  war,  b.  c.  343-341 

Latin  war,  B.  c.  340-338 

Second  Samnite  war,  B.  c.  326-304. . . 
Third  Samnite  war,  B.  c.  398-290 


All  Italy,  from  the  Apennines  bordering 
the  Padus  valley  (Cisalpine  Gaul),  to 
the  Greek  colonies  of  the  southern 
coasts,  becomes  Roman. 

The    Greek    colonies  of   the   southern 


iThe    Greek    colonies  o 
coasts  become  Roman 


THE   SAME   CHRONOLOGY   SIMPLIFIED. 

The  territorial  expansion  of  Rome  beyond  Latium  began  in  the  time 

of  Alexander  the  Great ;  central  date B.  c.  333 

Conquest  of  Central  Italy  effected  by  the  year "    290 

Conquest  of  Southern  Italy  effected  by  the  year **    275 

According  to  the  above  dates,  the  Roman  consolidation  of  Italy  was  effected 
in  the  early  part  of  the  3d  century  b.  c. 


CONQUEST   OF  THE   WESTERN    MEDITERRANEAN, 
B.  C.  270-200. 

The  Punic  Wars. — At  the  moment  when  the  events  just  de- 
scribed had  carried  the  Eoman  power  down  through  the  tongue  of 
land  which  looked  over  from  the  town  of  Rhegium  across  the  Straits 
of  Messina  to  Sicily,  this  island  had  reached  a  critical  point  of 
history. 

In  the  general  falling  off  of  patriotic  and  civic  virtues  which  the 
Greeks  experienced  in  the  Alexandrine  period,  the  Greek  colonies 
of  Sicily  had  gradually  been  yielding  to  Carthaginian  aggressions, 
until,  at  the  time  we  have  reached,  only  the  town  and  territory  of 
Syracuse  continued  to  hold  out.  The  campaign  of  Pyrrhus  in 
Sicily  had  made  a  temporary  headway  against  the  Phoenician  con- 
quest, which  his  abandonment  of  the  island  again  allowed  to 
expand. 


90 


ROME 


Greek  Theatre  at  Egesta,  in  Sicily. 
{Bestorationfrom  the.  Buins.) 


Phcenician  troops  were  always  mercenaries,  and  the  Greeks 

had  used  no  other  soldiers  since  Alexander.     (The  final  failure  of 

Phyrrhus  in  Italy  was 
the  failure  of  such  a 
Greek  mercenary  force 
against  Roman  citizen 
soldiers.)  Among  the 
mercenaries  employed 
in  Sicily,  both  by 
Greeks  and  Phoeni- 
cians, were  bands  of 
Campanians  called 
Mamertines  (men  of 
Mars),  who  just  at 
this  time  seized  on 
the  town  of  Messana 

for  their  own  profit.     Besieged  by  Syracuse,  they  offered  the  town 

to  the  Romans  in  return  for  an  alliance. 

The  senate  was  loath  to  deal  with  such  disreputable  men,  but 

the  will  of  the  people  ordered  the  Roman  occupation.    Meantime 

another  band  of  the  Mamertines  delivered  up  the  town  to  Carthage. 

The  Phoenician  garrison  was  now  expelled  by  the  Roman  army. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Punic— t.  e.,  Phoenician  wars. 

The  contest  about  the  town  of  Messana  depended  on  the  fact  that 
its  position  made  it  the  key  to  Sicily,  and  tlie  struggle  arose  at  this  point  also 
because  here,  and  for  the  first  time«  Roman  power  extending  one  way,  and  Car 
thaginian  power  extending  the  other,  came  in  contact.  The  bitter  struggla 
between  Rome  and  Carthage  was  really,  however,  one  between  two  systems. 

As  far  as  the  Carthaginians  had  made  themselves  masters  in  the  Western 
Mediterranean  it  was  as  commercial  monopolists,  converting  into  plantation 
slaves  the  subjugated  populations,  waging  war  with  mercenary  soldiers,  who 
were  very  cruelly  treated,  and  only  caring  to  extort  wealth  for  themselves. 
Their  attitude  made  them  odious,  but  as  long  as  their  power  was  unquestioned 
successful  revolt  was  impossible.  The  development  of  a  strong  power  in  Italy 
vras  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Carthage,  because  the  subjugated  peoples  in  Africa 


THE    PUNIC     WARS. 


91 


and  Spain  were  now  tempted  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  oppression  by  appeal- 
ing to  Rome.  This  produced  a  state  of  tension  and  caused  the  Punic  wars, 
the  contest  about  Messana  being  the  spark  which  lit  the  conflagration. 

Narrative  of  the  First  Punic  War.— Hiero  of  Syracuse  made  an  alliance  with  Rome, 
which  was  really  defending  the  cause  of  Greek  civilization  in  Sicily  as  well  as  its  own  exist- 
ence. The  great  difficulty  of  the  Romans  in  the  first  Punic  war  lay  in  their  lack  of  fleets  and 
marine  experience.  In  maritime  warfare  the  galleys  were  used  as  rams,  and  were  provided 
with  beaks  projecting  under  water.  Success  depended,  therefore,  on  the  expert  manoeu- 
vering  of  the  galleys,  so  as  to  strike  the  enemy's  ship  in  the  side.  The  Romans  not  only  con- 
structed ships,  but  invented  a  system  of  bridges  furnished  with  hooks  and  worked  by  tackle, 
which  were  let  down  on  the  Phoenician  vessels  when  they  made  their  customary  manoeuvre. 
By  these  bridges  the  Phoenician  galleys  were  boarded.  Thus  the  superiority  of  the  Romans  as 
land  warriors  was  brought  into  play.  The  struggle,  however,  was  long  and  desperate,  as  im- 
plied by  the  dates  for  the  duration  of  the  war  (204-241).  It  was  prolonged  by  the  landing  of 
a  Roman  army  in  Africa,  which,  at  first  successful,  was  finally  defeated  and  almost  destroyed. 
The  Carthaginians  gained  this  victory  with  a  mercenary  army  of  Greeks  led  by  a  Spartan,  and 
by  using  the  terrible  war  elephants  (common  in  Macedonian  warfare  since  Alexander's  cam- 
paign to  India).  The  Roman  general,  Regulus,  was  taken  prisoner.  After  Phoenician  disasters 
in  Sicily,  he  was  sent  by  Carthage  with  an  embassy  to  ofier  a  peace,  which  Rome  refused. 
Regulus  returned  to  Carthage  as  he  had  promised,  and  was  put  to  death.  (The  death  of  Regu- 
lus is  not  mentioned  by  Polybius,  a  contemporary  author,  and  has  been  doubted  by  some  in 
consequence.) 

The  final  Roman  victory  was  won  at  sea  off  the  ^gatian 
Isles,  Northwest  Sicily.     This 


led  to  the  peace  by  which  Rome 
gained  its  first  province — viz., 
Sicily.  Syracuse  remained  an 
allied  Greek  kingdom. 

Between  the  first  and  sec- 
ond Punic  wars  there  were  wars 
with  the  Gauls  in  North  Italy, 
which  gave  the  Romans  con- 
trol of  the  valley  of  the  Padus 
by  the  colonies  of  Placentia 
(Piacenza)  and  Cremona  (after 
222).  Carthage  w^as  occupied 
with  a  revolt  of  her  own  mer- 
cenaries, and  Rome  acquired 
also  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 


%.\ 


I 


Roman  Armor  from  Pompeii. 
(Naples  Museum.) 


92    •  ROME. 

Second  Punic  War. — The  conquest  of  Sicily  had  made  the 
overthrow  of  Eome  by  Carthage  more  than  ever  a  matter  of  existence 
for  the  latter.  Therefore  in  237  Hamilcar  Barca,  the  greatest 
Phoenician  general  of  the  First  Punic  War,  crossed  over  into  Spain 
to  find  and  develop  new  resources  for  Carthage.  His  son-in-law, 
Hasdrubal,  who  succeeded  him,  made  a  treaty  with  Eome  not  to 
pass  the  Ebro.  On  the  death  of  Hasdrubal,  Hannibal,  the  son  of 
Hamilcar  Barca,  was  elected  general.  As  a  boy  he  had  sworn  to 
his  father  eternal  hatred  of  the  Eomans,  and  now  determined  to 
attack  them  in  Italy,  first  besieging  Saguntum,  their  ally.  This  act 
led  the  Eomans  to  declare  war.  Their  available  force,  according  to 
Polybius,  was  700,000  foot,  70,000  horse,  of  which  force  273,000 
men  were  Eoman  citizens.  The  available  force  of  Hannibal  was 
90,000  foot  and  12,000  horse. 

Narrative  of  the  Second  Punic  War —In  the  spring  of  218,  the  Carthaginians 
marched  with  50,000  men,  9,000  horse,  and  many  elephants,  by  way  of  Southern  France  and  the 
Little  St.  Bernard  Pass,  over  the  Alps  into  Italy.    The  Gauls  of  the  Padus  valley  joined  them. 

The  consul,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio,  was  routed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Padus,  at  the  river  Tici- 
nus.  The  second  consul,  Tiberius  Sempronhis  Longus,  who  brought  Scipio  a  second  army 
from  Sicily,  was  routed  on  the  Trebia,  another  tributary  of  the  Padus. 

After  the  winter,  which  caused  the  death  of  the  elephants,  Hannibal  crossed  the  Western 
Apennines,  marched  up  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  and  destroyed  the  entire  army  of  the  consul 
Plaminius  on  Lake  Trasimenus.  He  then  moved  on  Southern  Italy,  changing  by  the  way  the 
arms  and  tactics  of  his  soldiers  to  the  Roman.  The  consul,  Q.  Fabius  Maximus  (from  whom  is 
named  the  "  Fabian  "  policy),  constantly  refused  battle,  and  moved  by  the  heights  while  Han- 
nibal marched  through  Southern  Italy  by  the  plains. 

In  216  the  consul,  C.  Terentius  Varro,  with  86,000  men,  lost  the  battle  of  Cannae  and  70,000 
of  his  army,  Varro  escaped,  with  seventy  horsemen,  to  Venusia.  The  senate  summoned  him 
to  Rome,  went  in  procession  to  the  gates  to  meet  him,  thanked  him  "  for  not  deepairiug  of  the 
republic,"  then  called  under  arms  even  the  criminals,  slaves,  and  imprisoned  debtors.  It  was 
the  popular  party  which  had  appointed  the  defeated  generals ;  it  now  yielded  place  to  the 
patrician  aristocratic  leadership,  and  this  unity  saved  Rome. 

Hannibal  was  exhausted  with  victories.  He  received  no  reinforcements  of  importance 
from  Carthage,  and  none  f^om  Spain,  where  the  Roman  generals  had  beaten  his  brother  Has- 
drubal on  the  Ebro,  and  then  transferred  the  war  to  the  Bsetis  (Guadalquiver).  Hannibal  had 
made  alliances  with  Syracuse  (after  the  dea(h  of  Hiero)  and  with  the  Macedonian  king  Philip. 
The  latter  was  driven  out  of  Illyria  and  held  in  check  by  the  .^tolian  league,  allies  of  the  Romans. 
Syracuse,  besieged  two  years,  214-212,  by  Marcellus,  was  then  taken  and  plundered.  (Death  of 
Archimedes,  p.  68.)    The  transportation  of  Greek  works  of  art  to  Rome  began  at  this  time. 

Since  216  Hannibal  had  occupied  Capua,  and  in  212  he  took  Tarentum.  To  relieve  the 
former  city  from  siege  he  marched  to  within  five  miles  of  Rome,  but  the  army  about  Capua 


THE    PUNIC    WARS.  93 

could  not  be  lured  away.  Both  cities  were  retaken  by  Kome.  After  211  Hannibal  was  con- 
fined to  Southern  Italy,  still  waiting  for  the  expected  reinforcements.  Jealousy  ruined  him 
at  Carthage ;  his  dependence  was  on  Spain.  Here,  after  defeats  of  the  Roman  army,  which 
drove  it  back  to  the  Ebro  in  211,  the  young  Publius  Scipio,  who  had  saved  his  father's  life  at 
the  Ticinus,  was  made  general.  In  209  he  attacked  Hasdrubal  at  B;ecula  in  Andalusia,  gaining 
a  doubtful  victory,  for  Hasdrubal  followed  his  brother's  path  into  Italy,  and  appeared  there 
with  60,000  men,  Hasdrubal  was  opposed  on  the  Metaurus  (above  Sena  Gallica)  by  a  large 
Roman  army,  and  dispatched  messengers  to  Hannibal.  These  were  captured  by  the  Romans. 
The  consul,  C.  Claudius  Nero,  holding  Hannibal  in  check  near  Cauusium,  secretly  marched 
with  7,000  picked  men  to  the  North.  Hasdrubal  was  forced  to  give  battle,  and  was  defeated. 
He  committed  suicide,  and  his  army  was  destroyed,  20T. 

When  Hannibal  received  news  of  this  defeat  (his  brother's  head  was  thrown  into  his  camp 
by  the  Romans  to  announce  it)  he  drew  back  into  Apulia,  where  he  held  his  ground  for  four 
years  longer,  till  203. 

Meantime  Scipio  had  defeated  a  new  Carthaginian  army  in  Spain,  which  now  came  generally 
into  Roman  power.  In  205  he  obtained  with  difllculty  permission  to  make  war  in  Africa.  In  204 
he  landed  near  Utica.  In  the  next  year,  after  some  Roman  successes,  Hannibal  was  recalled  to 
Africa,  which  he  had  not  seen  for  thirty -four  years.  (At  nineteen  he  went  to  Spain,  at  twenty- 
six  he  began  the  war  which  he  had  waged  single-handed  till  he  was  forty-two.) 

The  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Zama  in  202.  Scipio  placed 
his  ranks  one  behind  the  other,  instead  of  in  the  usual  alternate 
arrangement,  so  that  the  elephants  might  pass  through  without 
breaking  his  lines.  After  desperate  and  undetermined  conflict  of 
the  foot,  the  battle  was  decided  by  the  Eoman  and  allied  African 
cavalry. 

Carthage  made  peace  in  201 ;  agreed  to  pay  10,000  talents 
within  tifty  years  (about  $15,000,000) ;  gave  up  all  her  elephants 
and  all  her  ships  of  war  but  ten  ;  and  abandoned  all  Spanish, 
Mediterranean,  and  African  possessions  excepting  the  territory 
immediately  subject  to  the  town  of  Carthage.  She  also  agreed  to 
wage  no  war  without  consent  of  Eome.  Thus  the  latter  power  be- 
came mistress  of  the  Western  Mediterranean.  Fifty  years  later  the 
Romans  resolved  on  the  utter  destruction  of  their  ancient  enemy, 
now  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  rich  mercantile  city  without  political 
power. 

The  Third  Punic  War  is  perhaps  the  only  important  one 
undertaken  by  Rome  where  motives  of  self-preservation  cannot  be 
directly  traced.  Hereditary  animosity  and  commercial  jealousy  were 
the  motives  here.    Conditions  of  dependence  so  odious  were  required 


94  ROME. 

of  Carthage  that  she  resisted  with  the  fury  of  despair.     The  city 
was  entirely  destroyed  in  146  b.  c. 

The  Roman  general  of  the  Third  Punic  War  was  Scipio  Minor, 
so  nanied  to  distinguish  him  from  Scipio  Major,  or  Scipio  Africa- 
nus,  hero  of  the  Second  Punic  War. 

Map  Study.— Rheglum,  Messana ;  p.  73,  Placentia,  Cremona  ;  p.  86.  Ebro,  map  at  p.  92. 
Saguntum ;  see  on  a  modern  map  of  Spain  Murviedro,  north  of  Valencia.  Hannibal's  route 
over  the  Alps,  the  Ticinus,  and  Trebia ;  see  map  at  p.  92.  For  other  localities  of  his  cam- 
paigns ;  map  at  p.  86.    jEtolian  League,  p.  94.    Zama  is  south  of  Carthage. 

For  general  result  of  the  Punic  wars,  see  map  of  the  western  part  of  the  Roman  dominion  a 
century  after  their  close,  p.  92. 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  PUNIC  WARS. 

First  Punic  War b.  c.  264-341 

Second  Punic  War "     218-201 

Third  Punic  War **     150-146 

The  First  and  Second  Punic  Wars  made  the  essential  changes  in  territorial 
power.  Each  lasted  about  twenty  years.  A  space  of  about  twenty  years  inter- 
vened between  them.     The  dates  might  be  thus  simplified  : 

First  Punic  War B.  C.  260-240 

Second  Punic  War "     220-200 

Third  Punic  War "     150 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  ROMAN  ADVANCE  IN  THE  WESTERN  MEDITERRANEAN. 

Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica;  alter b.  c.  240 

Cisalpine  Gaul  (North  Italy);  after "     220 

Spain  and  North  Africa ;  after "     200 

Transalpine  Gaul  (South  France) ;  after "      120 

According  to  these  dates,  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  Western  Mediter- 
ranean were  Romanized  in  the  3d  and  2d  centuries  b.  c. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  EASTERN  MEDITERRANEAN,  B.  C.  200-30. 

War  "With  Macedonia  naturally  resulted  from  her  alliance 
with  Hannibal  in  the  Second  Punic  War,  after  this  war  was  closed. 
By  the  defeat  at  Cynosceplialse  in  Thessaly  (b.  c.  197)  the  Mace- 


CONQUEST    OF    EAST    MEDITERRANEAN.  95 

donian  state  was  humbled,  and  agreed  to  wage  no  war  without  con- 
sulting Rome.  The  Koman  general  Flaminius  proclaimed  the 
freedom  of  the  Greeks  at  the  Isthmian  games,  and  confined  the 
^tolian  league  (p.  61),  which  had  sided  with  Rome  against  Mace- 
donia, to  its  previous  limits. 

Meantime  Hannibal  had  set  himself  to  regulate  the  finances 
and  reform  the  constitution  of  Carthage  with  such  success  that  the 
Romans  had  demanded,  in  195,  liis  surrender.  He  fled  to  Antiochus 
III.  of  Syria  (Seleucid  Empire,  p.  61),  whom  he  urged  to  fight  Rome. 

Antiochus  was  also  urged  into  war  by  the  discontented  ^tolian 
league.  He  invaded  Greece  and  w^as  defeated  (191)  at  Thermopylae;, 
but  his  decisive  overthrow  occurred  the  following  year  at  Magnesia, 
in  Asia  Minor,  190.  This  victory  practically  gave  the  control  of 
the  Eastern  civilized  world  to  the  power  which  had  just  conquered 
the  Western  Mediterranean.  But  Rome  was  satisfied  to  cripple  the 
Seleucid  Empire,  and  gave  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor  to  its  ally 
Pergamus.  Hannibal's  surrender  was  a  condition  of  the  peace.  He 
fled  to  King  Prusias  of  Bithynia  (Northern  Asia  Minor),  and  took 
poison  in  183,  as  his  surrender  had  been  again  demanded  by  the 
Roman  ambassadors. 

A  second  uprising  of  Macedonia,  allied  with  the  Greeks  in 
general,  was  put  down  by  the  victory  of  Pydna,  in  Macedonia,  168 ; 
after  which  the  Macedonian  power  was  crippled  by  division  into 
four  aristocratic  republics  paying  tribute  to  Rome. 

The  G-reeks  were  no  longer  worthy  of  their  freedom,  nor  had 
they  even  the  comprehension  of  their  own  feebleness  as  opposed  to 
the  new  power  in  the  West,  which  they  continued  to  tease  with 
their  quarrels  and  futile  jealousy.  A  third  Macedonian  war,  attended 
by  a  revolt  of  the  Corinthian  populace  and  the  anti-Roman  party 
in  Greece,  resulted  in  the  incorporation  of  Greece  and  Macedonia  as 
Roman  provinces,  146  b.  c.  Corinth  was  destroyed,  and  its  art 
treasures  were  taken  to  Rome. 

It  was  here  that  the  Eoman  general  Mummius  gave  orders  that  any  soldier  breaking  a 
statue  through  carelessness  in  transport  would  have  to  replace  it  at  his  own  expense.    This 


96  ROME. 

story  reminds  us  of  the  glories  of  Greek  art  still  continuing  in  the  time  of  Greek  decay,  and  of 
the  newly  beginning  Koman  culture,  which  did  not  comprehend  that  anything  besides  money 
was  necessary  to  replace  a  Greek  statue. 

The  kingdom  of  Pergamus  (p.  61),  comprehending  (since  the 
victory  of  Magnesia)  most  of  Asia  Minor,  was  deeded  to  its  ally 
Rome  by  the  will  of  the  last  Attalid  in  133  B.  c. 

Only  one  power  nearer  than  Parthia  (p.  61)  which  could  dare 
to  cope  with  Rome  was  now  left,  and  this  did  not  exert  itself  till 
88  B.  c.  The  Pontic  Empire  of  Mithridates,  a  half  Greek,  half 
Asiatic  king,  stretched  around  all  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  East,  comprehending  the  important  Greek  cities  of  the  Crimea, 
and  became  the  centre  of  opposition  to  Roman  rule. 

Three  Mithridatic  -wars  were  waged;  the  last  was  ended, 
B.  c.  64,  by  Pompey  the  Great.  It  resulted  in  the  incorporation  of 
most  remaining  portions  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Syria  under  Roman 
rule.  The  latter  province  was  not  at  this  time  directly  annexed,  but 
was  converted  into  vassal  states  under  various  arrangements ;  so 
that  in  Judaea,  for  instance,  was  installed  under  Roman  protection 
and  direction  the  family  of  which  King  Herod  was  a  member. 

The  Greek  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  were  also,  by  this  time,  prac- 
tically dependent  on  Roman  policy  and  direction,  which  thus  em- 
braced all  shores  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Map  Study.— Map  for  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  at  p.  94 — Macedonia,  Cynoscephalae, 
JEtolian  Leajjue,  Magnesia,  Empire  of  Pergamus  (after  190  b.  c.)  Bithynia,  Pydua  Pontic  king- 
dom of  Mithridates  and  Judsea;  see  section  map.  Seleucid  Empire  (before  Magnesia  and  the 
Parthians) ;  p.  58.    Parthian  Empire ;  section  map,  p.  94,    Ptolemies  in  Egypt ;  p.  58. 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  ROMAN  ADVANCE  IN  THE  EASTERN  MEDITERRANEAN. 

Macedonia  humbled  at  CynoscephalsB b.  c.  197 

Seleucidae,  humbled  at  Magnesia,  surrender  their  possessions  in  Asia 

Minor  to  Pergamus,  ally  of  Rome "  190 

Macedonia  tributary  after  Pydna "  168 

Greece  and  Macedonia  annexed "  146 

Pergamus,  including?  most  important  portions  of  Asia  Minor,  inherited   "  133 

Syria  dependent  on  Rome  after  third  Mithridatic  war **  64 

Egypt  is  really  in  Roman  dependence  after  this  time. 


CONQUEST    OF    EAST    MEDITERRANEAN. 


97 


SAME  CHRONOLOGY  SIMPLIFIED. 

Greece  and  Macedonia  Romanized  ;  after b.  c.  150 

Asia  Minor  Romanized  ;  after **    133 

Syria  Romanized  ;  after "       64 

Egypt  a  Roman  province  ;  after "       30 

According  to  these  dates,  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  Eastern  Mediter- 
ranean were  Romanized  in  the  2d  and  1st  centuries  b.  c. 


POLITICAL    HISTORY    OF    ROME   AS  AFFECTED    BY 
TERRITORIAL  CONQUESTS. 

Condition  of  Rome  about  133  B.  C— Some  phases  of  Roman  discipline,  character, 
and  policy  tending  to  explain  the  territorial  expansion  related  in  the  three  preceding  sections 
have  been  mentioned.    It  will  have  been  noticed  that  the  native  populations  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  were  already  under  foreign  ^^__^^^_^______^___ 

conquerors  before  they  came  under  Roman       /^l^^i  ^"^        ^    -  *'N^ 

rule.  The  West  was  under  a  foreign  Phce-  /  <&ffii''i" 
nician  despotism,  and  the  East  was  under 
foreign  Greek  despotisms.  On  the  whole, 
the  condition  of  these  subject  populations 
was  decidedly  benefited  by  the  change  of 
rulers,  although  the  development  of  a  Ro- 
man political  equality  for  the  foreign  coun- 
tries was  not  undertaken  till  the  times  of  the 
Empire  (after  30  b.  c).  The  full  develop- 
ment of  Roman  political  equality  in  Italy 
was  in  process  during  the  period  of  the  for- 
eign conquests  of  the  republic  just  narrated, 
and  was  not  fully  accomplished  till  shortly 
before  the  time  of  the  Empire. 

Thus,  analogous  to  the  struggle  of  the 
patricians  and  plebeians,  resulting  in  class 
equality  among  Romans  about  350  b.  c,  was 

a  second  contest  after  that  date,  resulting  in  the  class  equality  of  all  Italians  before  30  b,  c,  and 
a  third  development,  resulting  in  the  national  equality  of  all  conquered  nations  with  the  con- 
querors, after  30  b.  c. 

This  second  period  now  concerns  us.  Its  turning  point  is  the  year  133  b.  c,  the  time 
of  the  Gracchi.  This  year,  already  noted  as  that  of  the  inheritance  of  much  of  Asia  Minor 
from  Pergamus,  is  also  memorable  for  the  conquest  of  the  town  of  Numantia,  in  farther  Central 
Spain,  by  which  that  country  was  finally  and  securely  fixed  under  Roman  rule. 

With  the  time  of  the  Gracchi  began  the  Civil  wars  of  Rome,  which,  lasting  a  century, 
terminated  with  the  accession  of  the  first  Roman  emperor,  Augustus,  in  31  b.  c. 


A  Roman  Aqueduct,  erected  145  b.  c. 


98  ROME. 

To  understand  the  internal  troubles  and  dissensions  in  the  Roman  state  after  the  territorial 
expansion  began,  we  must  remember  what  was  the  government  of  an  ancient  republic.  In 
Italy,  as  in  Greece,  such  a  government  was  controlled,  or  largely  influenced,  by  public  con- 
course of  the  citizens,  without  intermediate  representation  as  in  modern  states.  The  break- 
down of  the  Athenian  democracy  and  of  the  civic  governments  of  Greece  in  general  before  the 
time  of  Philip,  was  mainly  a  physical  result  of  the  overgrowth  of  the  public  concourse,  and  of 
its  consequent  disorders  and  unwieldiness.  In  Greece  the  struggle  between  progress  and  con- 
servatism, democracy  and  aristocracy— i.  e.,  between  the  ideal  of  an  unlimited  and  a  limited 
concourse— was  never  settled.  In  this  straggle  both  sides  (Sparta  and  Athens)  became  ex- 
hausted, and  military  despotism  stepped  in  with  Philip  of  Macedon. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  state  which  was  to  become  the  leading  state  of  Italy  and  of  the 
Old  World,  the  struggle  terminated  in  the  complete  success  of  the  democracy  (plebeians)  under 
restraint  of  the  senate  and  a  continued  aristocracy  of  birth. 

But  after  the  Samnite  wars,  when  Roman  colonies  of  citizen  soldiers  existed  in  all  parts  of 
Italy,  and  when  the  gift  of  full  Roman  citizenship  with  suffrage  had  been  partially  bestowed  on 
the  conquered  Italians,  a  curious  antagonism  sprang  up  between  the  methods  of  an  ancient 
republic  and  the  progressive  tendency  to  political  equality.  In  theory,  every  full  citizen  had  a  vote 
in  the  public  concourse ;  in  fact,  the  full  citizens,  because  scattered  over  all  parts  of  Italy,  could 
not  vote  in  the  concourse.  In  the  city  of  Rome  itself,  increasing  population  made  the  meetings 
of  the  concourse  more  and  more  disorderly  and  unwieldy.  Increasing  population  meant  als^o 
increasing  poverty  of  a  rabble  open  to  corruption.  The  disorders  of  the  state  which  resulted 
in  civil  war  terminating  in  the  empire  are,  then,  partly  explained  by  the  progressive  tendencies 
to  political  equality  in  conflict  with  the  method  of  civic  government  by  concourse. 

Asacond  element  of  chang-e  was  introduced  after  the  conquest  of  Sicily— the  provin- 
cial system.  All  conquered  countries  outside  of  Italy  became  provinces  governed  by  a  Roman 
ofticial— a  pro-consul,  praetor,  or  pro-pra;tor.  These  provinces  paid  tribute  to  Rome,  and  this 
tribute  was  partly  used  to  support  and  pay  the  Roman  legions  stationed  in  the  provinces.  This 
tribute  was  raised  by  contract.  A  contractor,  called  a  publican,  farmed  the  tax — i.  e.,  paid  to 
the  senate  a  certain  sum  for  the  privilege  of  raising  the  tax  from  the  province.  The  publican 
generally  raised  the  tax  with  oppression  and  beyond  the  just  due.  The  jniblican  and  sinner  are 
often  mentioned  together  in  the  New  Testament.  The  financial  oppression  of  the  provinces 
continued  till  overthrown  by  the  empire,  whose  mission  to  rai^  the  provinces  to  equality  has 
been  noted. 

The  tax-farming:  system  resulted  in  the  growth  .nt  Rome  of  a  class  of  tax-farming 
bankers  of  enormous  riches  unjustly  acquired.  The  fabulous  luxury  and  corruption  of  the 
later  days  of  the  republic  are  thus  explained  These  wealthy  men  increased  their  riches 
by  entering  into  manufactures  of  various  kinds  on  a  colossal  scale  by  means  of  slaves,  and 
they  used  their  riches  for  political  ends  in  the  corruption  of  the  Roman  populace.  They  also 
corrupted  the  senate  and  the  courts  in  the  lawsuits  brought  ngainst  them  for  oppression  in  the 
provinces. 

One  form  of  corruption,  at  last,  not  even  reprobated,  was  the  exhibition  to  the  populace 
of  the  bloody  combats  of  trained  gladiators  with  otio  another  or  with  wild  boasts.  Such  gladi- 
ator shows  were  unknown  to  Greece,  where  gymnastic  training  was  used  ax  a  means  of  educa- 
tion. Tliey  were  also  unknown  nt  Rome  in  the  virtuous  days  of  the  republic,  and  were  first 
introduced  from  Capua  after  the  Samnite  wars. 

The  Plantation  System.— The  money  of  the  Roman  banking  party,  raised  by  provincial 
0|)pression  and  manufacturing  monopoly,  was  also  employed  in  the  purchase  of  large  estates. 


POLITICAL    HISTORY    OF    ROME. 


99 


The  small  agricultural  farms  of  Italy  were  bought  up  and  turned  into  grazing  farms,  where 
the  immense  herds  of  cattle  were  tended  by  slaves,  or  else  the  small  farms  were  aggregated 
into  plantations  worked  by  chain-gangs  of  slaves.  This  system  was  borrowed  from  the  Car- 
thaginian slave  plantations  of  Africa  after  the  Punic  wars.  The  great  slave  market  was  on  the 
.sland  of  Delos,  where  10,000  slaves  were  once  sold  to  Roman  capitalists  in  a  single  day. 

The  Roman  army  had  been  composed  for  centuries  of  farmer-citizens.  To  break  up  the 
small  farms  was  to  destroy  the  free  farming  class,  now  replaced  by  slaves.  Thus  the  Roman 
legions  became  gradually  composed  of 
mercenaries  instead  of  unpaid  citizens 
fighting  for  patriotic  motives.  But  the 
legions  of  mercenaries  could  be  turned 
against  one  another.  The  banking  mo- 
nopolist party,  in  its  scramble  for  the 
spoils  of  the  provincials;  split  into  fac- 
tions. These  factions  hired  armies  against 
one  another,  thus  causing  the  civil  wars. 

At  the  m.om.ent  when  these  cry- 
ing- evils  of  the  state  began  to  be 
apparent,  two  brothers,  Tiberius  Sem- 
pronins  and  Caius  Sempronius  Gracchus, 
endeavored  to  reform  the  fast-rotting  re- 
public. Their  measures  were  intended  to 
raise  the  farmer  class  by  new  distributions 
of  domain  land,  or  by  colonies  in  the  prov- 
inces. Tiberius  Gracchus  lost  the  favor  of 

the  senate  by  his  attempt  at  public  division  of  the  domain  lands;  Caius  Gracchus  lost  even  the 
favor  of  the  popular  party  by  a  proposal  to  make  full  citizens  of  all  Italians.  Both  brothers 
lost  their  lives  in  successive  tumults. 


Temple  of  "  Virile  Fortune."    The  only  building 
in  Modem  Rome  dating  from  the  Republic. 


TIMES   OF    MARIUS,  SULLA,  AND    POMPEY. 

The  growing  corruption  of  the  state  became  apparent  in  the 

Jiigurthine  war,  111-106  b.  c.  Micipsa,  king  of  the  North  African 
province  of  Numidia,  which  was  under  Roman  protection,  left  two 
sons  and  a  nephew,  among  whom  his  inheritance  was  divided.  The 
nephew,  Jugurtha,  having  served  with  a  Numidian  contingent 
against  Numantia,  where  he  learned  to  know  the  corruption  of  the 
Romans,  believed  that  it  would  be  an  easy  matter  to  supplant  the 
sons  of  Micipsa,  and  usurp  the  government  of  all  Numidia.  Suc- 
cessive Roman  armies  were  defeated  by  corruption  or  lax  discipline, 
but  Jugurtha  finally  died  in  prison  at  Rome. 

In  the  Jugurthine  war  two  officers  had  made  themselves  a  name 


100 


ROME 


— Marius,  a  man  of  low  origin  and  of  the  popular  party,  the  com- 
mander who  restored  Roman  discipline ;  and  Sulla,  his  lieutenant,  of 

the  aristocratic  party,  whose 
craft  and  energy  secured  the 
person  of  Jugurtha  and  ended 
the  war. 

Barbarians  from  North- 
eastern Europe,  called  Cim- 
bri  and  Teutons  by  contempo- 
rary authors,  probably  mixed 
Celts  and  Germans,  meantime 
invaded  Southern  (Roman) 
France,  113-101.  At  Arausio 
(Orange)  the  Romans  found, 
105,  a  second  Cannae.  Marius 
was  summoned  to  restore  dis- 
cipUne  and  success.  He  de- 
feated the  barbarians  at  Aquae 
Sextiae  (Aix),  102.  They  then 
invaded  Italy.  He  beat  them 
again  at  Vercellae  (North 
Italy),  101,  after  which  they  disappeared.  Marius  became  the  lead- 
ing man  at  Rome,  and  head  of  the  popular  party— offending,  by  his 
rough  manners  and  person,  as  well  as  by  his  democratic  principles, 
the  aristocracy. 

Since  the  time  of  Caius  Gracchus  successive  proposals  to 
make  full  citizens  of  the  Italian  confederates  had  failed,  and  these 
began,  in  90  B.  c,  the  "Social  war,"  after  renewed  denial  of  political 
equality.  With  their  demands  the  popular  party  at  Rome  now 
sympathized,  wishing  to  use  them  as  allies  against  the  power  of  the 
aristocrats.  The  war  ended,  after  some  apparent  Roman  successes, 
with  a  law  admitting  the  Italians  in  general  to  the  Roman  citizen- 
ship, 88  B.  c. 

In  the  same  year  began  the  first  Mithridatic  war,  with  the 


Sulla.    Prom  an  ancient  bust  in  tlie  Torlouia 
Museum  at  Rome. 


TIMES    OF    POMPET.  101 

news  that  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  had  caused  the  murder  in 
Asia  Minor  of  80,000  Romans,  and  had  raised  a  revolt  of  the  entire 
province.  Sulla  was  given  command  for  this  war  by  the  senate, 
but  Marius  was  made  commander  by  vote  of  the  public  concourse. 
Sulla,  then  in  camp  near  Capua,  led  his  army  on  Kome.  For  the 
first  time  in  its  history  the  legions  appeared  within  the  city  with 
their  arms.  A  battle  was  fought  within  the  walls,  and  the  Marian 
party  was  defeated.  Marius  fled  for  his  life,  while  Sulla  marched 
on  the  East. 

In  the  absence  of  Sulla,  who  defeated  the  forces  of  Mithri- 
dates, 87-84  B.  c,  and  compelled  him  to  make  satisfaction,  the 
popular  party  had  recalled  Marius.  A  fearful  massacre  of  the  sena- 
torial and  aristocratic  party  was  carried  out  by  his  mercenaries. 
Marius  died  before  the  return  of  Sulla,  after  which  Italy  was  wasted 
and  depopulated  by  a  civil  war  of  the  two  parties.  Sulla  tri- 
umphed, restored  the  aristocratic  constitution,  and  by  his  terrible 
proscriptions  (sentences  of  outlawry,  death,  and  confiscation)  cowed 
the  opposition  into  silence.  He  then  resigned  his  powers  as  dic- 
tator, dying  a  simple  citizen  in  78  b.  c. 

Julius  Csesar  at  this  time  was  about  twenty-four  years  old 
(born  102  *).  Two  men,  afterwards  famous  in  association  with 
him,  Pompey  and  Crassus,  had  been  the  lieutenants  and  partisans 
of  the  SuUan  reaction,  whereas  Caesar  was  related  by  marriage  to 
Marius,  and  belonged  to  the  popular  party,  although  of  patrician 
birth. 

Pompey  became  the  leading  man  at  Eome  after  Sulla's  death. 
His  abilities  as  a  soldier  were  very  distinguished,  but  as  a  politician 
he  lacked  principles,  and  therefore  a  fixed  conduct,  wishing  only  to 
keep  himself  in  the  good  graces  of  a  dominant  party. 

The  gladiator  Spartacus  raised,  in  73  b.  c,  a  slave  rebellion 
in  Italy,  which  counted  an  army  of  120,000  men.  It  was  crushed 
by  Pompey  and  Crassus. 

*  Mommseu. 


102 


ROME 


Meantime,  amid  other  disorders  of  the  Roman  state,  that  of  the 
pirates,  whose  headquarters  were  on  Crete  and  the  coast  of  Oilicia 

(Asia  Minor),  assumed 
gigantic  proportions. 
They  mastered  numer- 
ous towns,  and  counted 
a  fleet  of  1,000  ships. 

In  67,  Pompey 
was  sent  against  the 
pirates  with  extraordi- 
nary dictatorial  powers, 
and  crushed  them  in  a 
three  months  war. 

A  second  war 
with  Mithridates 
had  been  already  con- 
cluded before  the  death 
of  Sulla,  83-81.  The 
third  war  now  began 
on  account  of  the  will 
of  Nicomedes  of  Bi- 
thynia  (Northern  Asia 
Minor),  who  deeded  his 
state  to  Rome.  Mith- 
ridates undertook  to  expel  the  Romans  from  Bithynia.  The  war, 
lasting  74-64,  was  concluded  with  results  noted  on  p.  96.  Here 
again  Pompey  had  been  the  final  victor.  Before  his  return  from 
the  East,  took  place,  in  63,  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 

Catiline  was  a  profligate  Roman  noble  w^ho  espoused  the  pop- 
ular party  in  order,  by  raising  himself  to  power,  to  repeat,  on  the 
other  side,  the  proscriptions  and  confiscations  of  Sulla.  Defeated  as 
candidate  for  the  consulship,  he  resolved  to  employ  force.  His 
plans  were  detected,  and  he  fled  from  Rome  to  an  army  raised  in 
Etruria.    He  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Pistoria.     In  exposing 


Pompey. 


From  an  ancient  bust  in  the  Torlonia  Museum 
at  Rome. 


TIMES     OF     POM  PEY.  103 

and  defeating  the  plans  of  Catiline,  the  orator  and  lawyer  Cicero, 
of  the  senatorial  party,  made  himself  famous. 

In  61,  Pompey  returned  from  the  East  His  commands 
against  the  pirates  and  against  Mithridates  had  been  secured  by 
affiliations  with  the  popular  party,  although  he  began  public  life  as 
partisan  of  the  aristocracy,  and  had  not  openly  abandoned  them. 
He  now  expected  favor  from  both  parties,  and  failed  with  both, 
because  he  belonged  to  neither.  The  senate  refused  to  sanction  his 
arrangements  in  the  East ;  the  public  concourse  refused  his  soldiers 
the  proposed  allotment  of  lands.  This  led  Pompey  to  a  coalition 
with  Caesar,  who  had  returned,  in  60,  from  the  government  of  Spain, 
whither  he  went  in  61.  A  third  member  in  this  coalition  was  Cras- 
sus,  whose  enormous  wealth  was  a  needed  assistance.  Caesar  was 
made  consul,  and  carried  through,  in  59,  the  laws  for  satisfying  the 
soldiers  of  Pompey,  and  for  legitimizing  his  arrangements  in  the 
East. 

At  the  close  of  Caesar's  consulship  he  obtained,  in  58,  the 
governorship  of  Cisalpine  and  Transalpine  Gaul,  with  four  legions, 
for  a  term  of  five  years. 

Map  study.— See  map  at  p.  92  for  Numidia,  Numantia,  Aurasio,  Aquae  Sextiae,  VercelJae. 
Pontic  Empire  of  Mithridates  ;  p.  94.  Cilicia,  in  Asia  Minor ;  see  map  for  the  Roman  Empire. 
Bithynia ;  p.  94.    Pistoria ;  north  of  Florence.    Cisalpine  and  Transalpine  Gaul ;  p.  92. 


CHRONOLOGY. 

Jngurthine  War,  111-106 ;  about B.  c.  110 

f  Julius 

Cimbric  War,  113-101 ;  about "     100  J  Caesar 

1^  born. 

(  Times 

Social  War,  90-88 ;  about "      90-(  of 

y^  Marius. 

(  Times 

First  Mithridatic  War,  88-84  ;  about *'      85  J 

Second  Mithridatic  War.  83-81 1  «  ^, 

I  Sulla. 


104  ROME. 

Sulla  dies  ;  in B.  c.  78 

War  of  the  Gladiators  ;  Spartacus  ;  73-71 ;  ends "  71 

War  with  the  Pirates "  67 

Third  Mithridatic  War,  74-64 ;  ends "  64 

Conspiracy  of  Catiline  (Cicero) "  63 

CaBsar  governor  of  Spain  ;  Pompey  returns  from  the  East. . .  "  61 

Caesar  consul   "  59 

Caesar  governor  of  Gaul "  58 


Times 

of 

Pompey. 


CHRONOLOGY  SIMPLIFIED. 

Jugurthine  War b.  c.  110 

CimbricWar *'  100 

Social  War "  90 

Sulla  dies  ;  about "  80 

Gladiator's  War  ;  about "  70 

Pompey  returns  from  the  East  and  Caesar  consul ;  aboUt. . .  "  60 

•TIMES   OF  JULIUS  C/£SAR. 


i 

V  Pompey 


Marius. 

Sulla. 


In  58  B.  C.  only  Southern  Gaul  was  in  the  actual  possession  of 
the  Eoraans,  but  there  was  no  natural  boundary  to  limit  the  spread 
of  their  influence  and  civilization  to  the  centre  and  the  north.  At 
this  moment  the  Helvetians,  inhabitants  of  Switzerland,  overcrowded 
at  home,  were  contemplating  migration  in  mass  toward  the  West 
into  Gaul.  Caesar  opposed  them  in  the  pass  between  the  Jura  and 
the  Lake  of  Geneva.  They  then  crossed  the  Jura,  but  were  beaten 
and  dispersed  by  battles  fought  in  the  districts  corresponding  to 
modern  Franche-Comte  and  modern  Burgundy. 

The  Sequani,  Gauls  of  the  former  province,  then  begged  Caesar 
to  expel  from  their  territory  a  horde  of  Germans  whom  they  had 
summoned  to  fight  against  the  Gauls  of  Burgundy,  the  ^dui,  and 
who  had  then  settled  themselves,  to  the  number  of  120,000,  on  their 
lands.  Caesar  defeated  this  band,  commanded  by  Ariovistus,  in 
Southern  Alsace,  and  forced  them  over  the  Rhine.  The  Gauls  now 
began  to  dread  the  loss  of  their  independence  at  the  hands  of  the 
Komans. 


TIMES    OF    JULIUS    CtESAR. 


105 


The  Belgi,  between  Seine,  Marne,  and  Rhine,  made  a  league, 
which  German  tribes  on  the  left  Rhine  bank  joined.  Caesar 
regarded  the  assembling  of  troops 
as  conspiracy  against  Rome,  and 
invaded  their  territory  in  57. 
The  Belgi  attacked  his  camp, 
were  defeated  and  then  subdued 
in  detail. 

In  56  Cassar  subdued  the 
coast  tribes  between  the  Seine 
and  the  Loire,  and  those  be- 
tween the  Loire  and  the  Pyre- 
nees. 

In  55  he  defeated  German 
tribes  who  had  pushed  over  the 
Rhine,  then  threw  a  bridge  over 
this  river,  probably  between 
Bonn  and  Coblenz,  and  made  a 
campaign  of  eighteen  days  in 
Germany.  In  the  same  year 
he  made  a  short  expedition  to  Britain.  These  last  campaigns  were 
intended  to  secure  the  possession  of  Gaul  itself  by  an  exhibition  of 
Roman  power. 


Julius  Caesar,    From  an  ancient  bust  in  the 
Torlonia  Museum  at  Rome. 


Pompey  and  Crassus,  in  55,  were  consuls  at  Rome,  and  Caesar's  proconsulship  in  Gaul 
was  extended  five  years  in  addition  to  the  first  term.  Crassus  and  Pompey  were  given,  at  the 
close  of  their  consulship  for  this  year,  respectively  the  provinces  of  Syria  and  Spain,  each  for 
five  years. 

Crassus  marched  beyond  the  Euphrates  against  the  Parthians,  and  found  his  own  destruc- 
tion, with  his  entire  army  of  seven  legions,  in  the  deserts  of  Mesopotamia,  53.  Pompey,  against 
the  law  which  forbade  the  proconsul  to  govern  his  province  while  remaining  in  Rome,  con- 
tinued there,  watching  with  jealousy  the  success  of  Caesar.  Gladiator  bands,  in  the  interest  of 
the  popular  and  the  senatorial  parties,  gave  battle  to  each  other  in  the  streets  of  the  city.  The 
republican  constitution  was  in  its  death  agony.  The  elections  of  consuls  went  by  default  for 
two  years  on  account  of  the  tumults. 

Pompey  had  done  nothing  to  preserve  order,  but  being  made  sole  consul  in  52  by  senatorial 
influence,  sided  once  more  with  that  party.  Since  the  times  of  Marius  and  Sulla  the  army  had 
been  the  controlling  power  of  the  state.    Under  Sulla  the  aristocracy  had  been  bolstered  up  by 


106  ROME. 

it.    Under  Pompey,  military  iuflueuce  vacillated  towards  either  party,  till  his  jealousy  of 
drove  him  to  side  at  last  with  the  aristocracy  and  the  cause  of  reaction. 

Meantime  Caesar  had  made  new  campaigns  in  Britain  and  Germany,  and  in  Gaul  had  sup- 
pressed insurrections  in  54,  53,  and  52,  especially  that  of  Vercingetorix,  chief  of  the  Arverni 
(Auvergne). 


The  whole  of  Gaul  had  thus  become  a  Roman  province 

when  in  49  Pompey  and  the  senatorial  party  were  awaiting  the  con- 
clusion of  Caesar's  term,  the  1st  of  March,  to  supplant  him  and 
work  his  ruin.  The  latter,  again  a  candidate  for  the  consulship, 
was  required  to  dismiss  his  army  before  the  election.  He  offered  to 
do  this  if  Pompey  would  do  the  same  and  retire  to  his  government 
of  Spain,  as  required  by  law. 

The  refusal  of  Pompey  to  accept  this  proposal  revealed  bis 
ambition  to  attain  supreme  power.  A  small  river  running  into  the 
Adriatic,  between  the  Apennines  and  the  plain  of  the  Po,  was  the 
southern  boundary  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  Caesar  crossed  this  Eubicon 
without  hesitating,  and  marched  on  Rome  with  a  single  legion.  (A 
legion,  at  this  time,  consisted  of  6,100  men.)  Pompey,  with  two 
legions  (recalled  from  Caesar's  command),  of  which  he  felt  insecure, 
abandoned  Italy,  crossing  into  Greece. 

Caesar,  master  of  all  Italy  in  sixty  days,  then  sailed  for 
Spain  to  conquer  the  troops  stationed  there  before  attacking  their 
general.  The  army  in  Spain  surrendered  and  generally  took  sides 
with  Caesar,  but  the  officers  hastened  to  join  Pompey.  Caesar  then 
returned  by  way  of  Gaul  to  Italy,  and  crossed  from  Brundusium 
(Brindisi)  to  Greece.  His  army  was  25,000  foot  and  1,000  horse; 
his  rival's  army  was  45,000  foot  and  7,000  horse. 

On  the  battle-field  of  Pharsalia,  in  Thessaly,  Caesar  won  a 
decisive  victory,  48  B.  c.  Pompey  sailed  to  Egypt,  and  was  here 
murdered  by  the  guardians  of  the  young  king,  who  was  engaged  in 
war  with  his  sister  Cleopatra. 

Caesar  followed  by  way  of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  thence  sailed 
for  Egypt  with  4,000  men,  and  received  the  news  of  his  rival's  death 
on  landing  at  Alexandria,    He  summoned  Cleopatra  and  her  brother 


TIMES    OF    JULIUS    C^SAR.  107 

to  accept  his  arbitration  iu  their  dispute,  and  favored  the  cause  of 
the  former.  On  this  account  he  was  besieged  by  the  army  of  the 
king  for  five  months  in  Alexandria,  but  finally  received  troops  from 
Asia,  with  which  he  defeated  the  young  Ptolemy,  who  was  drowned 
in  the  Nile.  He  then  made  the  kingdom  over  to  Cleopatra  and  her 
younger  brother. 

Pharnaces,  son  of  Mithridates,  was  next  conquered  in  North- 
ern Asia  Minor.  The  news  of  the  victory  was  sent  to  Rome  in 
three  words :  "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered  " —  Veni,  Vidi,  Vici. 

Caesar  returned  to  Italy,  was  made  consul  for  five  years  and 
dictator  for  a  year  by  the  senate.  A  revolt  of  the  Pompeian  party 
called  him  to  Africa.  It  was  put  down  by  the  victory  of  Thapsus, 
47.  Fifty  thousand  Pompeian  soldiers  fell  in  this  battle.  In  46, 
Caesar  was  obliged  to  combat  the  Pompeian s  in  Spain.  The  battle 
of  Munda,  45,  made  him  master  of  the  Roman  world. 

The  next  year  of  his  fife  was  occupied  with  that  reorganism  of 
the  Roman  state  by  which  he  was  really  the  founder  of  the  Empire. 

The  .policy  of  protecting  the  provincials  began  with  him, 
and  was  the  basis  of  the  prosperity  and  duration  of  Imperial  Rome. 
But  the  phantom  of  the  old  repubhc  had  still  power  over  the  minds 
of  men,  and  it  caused  the  assassination  of  Caesar  in  b.  c.  44. 

Motive  of  the  Assassination.— He  was  accused  of  wishing  the  title  and  insignia  of  a 
king,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  so  great  a  man  cared  by  what  title  his  power  was  designated. 
The  aristocracy  killed  Caesar,  not  because  he  wished  to  be  called  a  king,  but  because  he  ad- 
mitted Gauls  and  Spaniards  to  the  Roman  senate.  The  provincials  were  his  loudest  mourners, 
and  the  Jews  of  Rome,  whom  he  had  protected,  refused  to  be  driven  from  his  bier.  The  great 
symbolic  act  of  his  dictatorship  was  the  reDuilding  of  a  Phoenician  Carthage  and  a  Greek  Cor- 
inth, leveled  in  the  dust  by  Roman  monopolists  a  century  before.  His  will  gave  the  Roman 
citizenship  to  the  inhabitants  of  Sicily. 

Map  Study.— See  modern  map  for  Switzerland,  Jura  Mountains,  Lake  of  Geneva,  province 
■  of  Franche-Comte,  duchy  of  Burgundy,  province  of  Alsace,  the  Rhine,  the  Seine,  the  Marne, 
the  Loire,  the  Pyrenees,  Bonn,  Coblentz,  Auvergne.  See  map  of  the  Roman  Empire  for 
Mesopotamia  and  the  Parthian  Empire.  The  Rubicon  enters  the  Adriatic  between  Ariminium 
and  Ravenna  ;  map  at  p.  86.  See  map  at  p.  94  for  Brundusium,  Pharsalia.  See  map  at  p.  92 
for  Thapsus,  in  Africa;  Munda,  in  Spain. 


108  ROME 


CHRONOLOGY. 

Caesar  in  Gaul  repels  the  Helvetian  invasion  and  the  German  horde  of 

Ariovistus, B.  c.  58 

Subdues  the  Belg^i .' "  57 

Subdues  the  Western  Coast "  56 

Crosses  the  Rhine  and  invades  Britain '*  55 

Invades  Britain  again **  54 

Suppresses  insurrections "  53 

Suppresses  insurrections "  52 

The  whole  of  Gaul  Roman "  51 

"  50 

Crosses  the  Rubicon "  49 

Defeats  Pompey  at  Pharsalia. , "  48 

Defeats  the  Pompeians  at  Thapsus *'  47 

And  settles  the  affairs  of  Africa "  46 

Defeats  the  Pompeians  at  Munda "  45 

Assassinated "  44 


FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  C/CSAR  TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF 
AUGUSTUS. 

The  senate  ratified  the  acts  of  Caesar  and  pardoned  his 
murderers.  These,  however,  felt  themselves  insecure  at  Rome,  and 
left  the  city.  Marc  Antony,  the  friend  of  Caesar,  and  his  colleague 
in  the  consulship,'  was  for  the  moment  the  centre  of  popular  devo- 
tion, and  strove  to  be  his  successor.  This  place  was  contested  by 
Octavian,  the  grand-nephew  of  Caesar  and  his  heir,  but  nineteen 
years  of  age.  The  rivalry  grew  into  a  civil  war,  then  ended  in  com- 
promise, by  which  the  provinces  of  the  West  were  divided  between 
the  rivals  and  a  third  member  of  the  coalition,  Lepidus. 

Brutus  and  Cassius,  heads  of  the  conspiracy  which  slew 
Caesar,  were  meantime  raising  troops  in  Greece,  Macedonia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Syria.  Their  army  was  assembled  near  Philippi,  in 
Macedonia.     In  two  desperate    battles,  fought  here  within  two 


ACCESSION    OF    AUGUSTUS.  109 

weeks,  November,  42  b.  c,  Octavian  and  Antony  triumphed. 
Brutus  and  Cassius  committed  suicide. 

A  new  division  of  the  Roman  world  was  now  made,  by 
which  Lepidus  received  Africa,  Octavian  the  rest  of  the  West,  and 
Antony  the  East.  In  the  society  of  Cleopatra  the  latter  dissipated 
tlie  treasures  of  his  provinces,  alienated  confidence  at  Rome  by  as- 
signing Eastern  provinces  to  her  children,  and  estranged  Octavian, 
whose  sister  was  his  wife,  by  divorcing  her.  Meantime  Octavian, 
by  politic  management  and  successful  wars,  had  become  sole  master 
of  the  West  Roman  world,  and  once  more  the  forces  of  East  and 
West  were  turned  against  each  other  by  Roman  rivals. 

The  naval  battle  of  Actium,  on  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  b.  c.  31, 
begins  the  history  of  the  Empire.  While  the  straggle  was  still 
doubtful,  Cleopatra  sailed  from  the  scene  of  action  followed  by 
Antony.  Both  found  death  by  suicide  in  Egypt,  which  became  a 
Roman  province,  b.  c.  30. 

Map  Study.— See  map  at  p.  94  for  Philippi  and  Actium. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

Philippi B.  c.  42 

Actium "    31 


THE   EMPIRE   OF  AUGUSTUS. 

Octavian  assumed  the  name  of  Augustus,  and  became  the  first 
Emperor.  The  general  of  the  army  was  called  Imperator ;  by  this  title  the 
Roman  rulers  now  became  known.  In  this  one  office  were  concentrated  the 
various  powers  distributed,  in  the  republic,  to  many  officials.  The  powers  of 
consul,  tribune,  censor,  pontifex  maximus,  were  united  in  it.  The  senate  re- 
mained an  important  administrative  and  advising  body.  To  its  charge  were 
also  confided  the  provinces  where  legions  were  not  required.  Under  the 
especial  care  of  the  Emperor  were  the  provinces  requiring  military  rule  or 
defence. 

The  strength  of  the  Imperial  system  lay  partly  in  its  open  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  the  army  had  become  the  controlling  power  in  the  Roman 


110 


ROME. 


state,  and  in  placing  the  responsibility  on  the  person  who  also  controlled  this 

power.     Above  all,  it  owed  its  strength  to 

the  fact  that  it  came  into  existence  as  the 

representative  of  the  progressive  and  liberal 

party,  and  of  the  policy  of  raising  provincials 

to  Roman  equality.     To  carry  out  this  policy 

was  the  task  of  the  later  empire.     In  spite 

of  crimes  and  odious  personal  character  in 

many  cases,   the   Emperors  were  generally 

faitliful  to  this  trust. 

During  the  reign  of  Augustus  the 
Danube  and  Rhine  were  securely  fixed 
as  boundaries  of  the  northern  provinces. 
From  the  crook  in  the  Danube  at  Regens- 
burg  (Ratisbon),  however,  the  Roman  line 
afterward  lay  north  of  this  river,  following 
in  general  the  line  of  the  Main  to  the 
Rhine. 

Britain  was  acquired  later,  as 
were  also  provinces  (Dacia)  beyond  the  lower 
Danube,  but  the  Empire  did  not  pursue  a 

policy  of  conquest  or  of  territorial  increase.     The  additions  under  Augustus 
were  made  to  acquire  and  strengthen  the  necessary  frontiers. 

Map  Study.— See  map  of  modern  Germany  for  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  Regensburg  or 
Ratisbon,  the  Main.  See  map  of  the  Roman  Empire  for  Britain,  Dacia,  and  other  Roman 
proyinceei. 


Augustus.    Ancient  Portrait-statue 
in  the  Vatican,  at  Rome. 


TABLE  OF  ROMAN  COUNTRIES  IN  REVERSE  ORDER  OF  ACQUISITION. 

{Not  including  Britain  and  Dacia,  acquired  after  the  Christian  Era.) 

Territories  between  the  Alps  and  the  Danube,  in  modern  Austria  and 

Bavaria  ;  after b.  c.      9 

Egypt ;  after •'  30 

Gaul;  after "  50 

Syria ;  after "  64 

Asia  Minor  (important  part);  after "  133 

Macedonia  and  Greece  ;  after "  146 

Africa  and  Spain ;  after "  200 

Sicily ;  after "  340 


CHRONOLOGY. 


Ill 


TABLE   OF    ROMAN    HISTORY    BY   CENTURIES. 


Ckntubt. 

CrVTLIZATION. 

Internal  Devel- 
opment. 

Area. 

Government. 

Date. 
B.  c. 

8th 

Kings. 

700 

7th 

s  . 

g§ 

On 

n 

Latium. 

Kings. 

600 

6th 

Servian  Con- 
stitution. 

Latium. 

Kings. 

500 

5th 

Struggle  of  the  Pa- 
tricians  and    Ple- 
beians. 

Latium. 

Republic. 

400 

4th 

Latium. 

Republic. 

300 

3d 

Greek  culture  spreads  over  the 
West. 

Roman  organism  ex- 
tends to  the  East. 

li 
^^ 

"Sis 

Italy. 

Republic. 

200 

2d 

Western  Med- 
iterranean, 

Eastern  Med- 
iterranean. 

Republic. 

100 

1st 

Provincials  rise 
to     Roman 
privileges. 

Syria. 
Gaul. 
Egypt. 

S.  Austria  and 
Bavaria. 

Empire. 

112  ROME. 

ROMAN    CHRONOLOGY   OF  ALL    PERIODS    BEFORE  CHRIST. 

City  founded B.  c.  750 

Alba  Lcnga  conquered  by  Tullus  Hostilius "     650 

Constitution  of  Servius  Tullius "    550 

Expulsion  of  the  kings "    510 


The  Plebeians  are  conceded  Popular  Tribunes "    495 

Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables "    451 


Burning  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls "     390 

Samnite  wars  begin •'    343 

Plebeians  attain  absolute  political  equality "    300 


Samnite  wars  end  ;  conquest  of  Central  Italy "  290 

War  with  Phyrrhus  ends  with  the  conquest  of  South  Italy "  275 

Punic  Wars  begin "  263 

Second  Punic  War  ends "  201 


Greece  and  Macedonia  Roman  provinces "  146 

Pergamus  deeded  to  Rome ;  Gracchic  troubles "  133 

Jugrurthine  War  begins •  "  HI 

( 'imbric  War  ends "  101 


Social  War  ends "  °° 

Third  Mithridatic  War  ends "  ^ 

Caesar's  c<onquest  of  Gaul  completed "  50 

Battle  of  Actium "  31 


ROMAN    LITERATURE. 


113 


Horace. 
{From  an  Ancient  Medal.) 


ROMAN    LITERATURE   AND   ART. 

Roman  literature  was  an  offshoot  from  the  Greek,  modified  by  the  prac- 
tical tendencies  and  peculiar  genius  of  tlie  adopters.  Not  till  after  the  con- 
quest  of  the  Greek  colonies  of  Southern  Italy 
(war  with  Phyrrhus,  B.  c.  275)  does  Latin  lit- 
erature boast  the  names  of  any  authors. 

Plautus,  dramatic  author,  flourished 
about  B.  c.  200. 

Terence,  dramatic  author,  flourished 
about  B.  c.  ]  50. 

The  comedies  of  these  writers  are  more  or 
less  original  adaptations  from  the  Greek,  espe- 
cially of  Menander  (Athenian  dramatist  of  the 
Alexandrine  time\ 

Cato  the  Censor,   called  Cato  Major, 
died  B.  c.  149.     His  work,  "  De  Re  Rustica,'* 
is  an  interesting  commentary  on  the  agricul- 
tural and  domestic  life  of  the  Romans  of  the  old  school,  fast  decaying  in  his 
time. 

The  practical  and  political  sense  of  the  Romans  made  them  especially  dis- 
tinguished in  the  field  of  history. 

Sallust,  about  50  B.  c,  wrote  the  history  of  the  Jugurthine  War  and  of 
Catiline's  conspiracy. 

Caesar  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Gallic  and  the  civil  wars. 

Livy,  in  the  times  of  Augustus,  wrote  a  history  of  Rome  in  145  books. 
Ten  books  covering  the  time  down  to  293,  and  fifteen  books  covering  the  time 
from  218  to  167,  are  preserved. 

Cicero,  about  50  b.  c,  in  his  orations  and  in  his  philosophical  works  (drawn 
from  Greek  sources)  is  a  perfect  master  of  Latin  expression  and  construction. 

Virgil,  born  near  Mantua,  flourished  in  the  times  of  Augustus.  He  wrote 
the  "  Eclogues" — pastoral  poems  ;  the  "  Georgics,"  an  agricultural  poem  ;  and 
the  "^neid,"  the  celebrated  Latin  epic  relating  the  fortunes  of  ^neas  after  his 
escape  from  the  siege  of  Troy,  his  visit  to  Queen  Dido  of  Carthage,  and  settle- 
ment in  Latium.  His  works  are  all  more  or  less  dependent  on  Greek  models 
and  originals. 

Horace,  of  Venusia,  like  Virgil,  was  a  friend  of  Maecenas,  the  famous 
patron  of  letters  and  intimate  of  Augustus.  His  works  consist  of  odes,  satires, 
and  epistles. 


114 


ROME. 


Ovid,  born  at  Sulmo,  in  the  Sabine  country,  was  a  friend  of  Horace  and 
favorite  of  Augustus  till,  for  unknown  reasons,  he  was  banished  to  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea  (Tomi,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Danube).  The  "  Metamorphoses," 
mythological  in  subject,  are  his  leading  work. 

Our  conception  of  Roman  civilization  is  derived  from  its  literature 
and  art.  The  generally  Greek  character  of  both  in  the  time  of  the  Empire  is 
best  understood  by  remembering  that  the  first  civilizing  influences  to  which 
Rome  was  subjected  came  from  the  Samnites  and  Etruscans,  who  were  both 
under  Greek  influence ;  that  the  conquest  of  the  Greek  colonies  of  South  Italy 
and  Sicily  heightened  this  influence,  which  became  overpowering  after  the 
conquest,  in  the  East,  of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  of  Grecianized  Asia  Minor, 

Grecianized  Syria,  and  the  important 
Greek  Egyptian  capital,  Alexandria. 
The  peculiar  original  force  of  the 
Roman  was  in  law,  in  politics,  and 
in  organism.  The  Roman  reorgan- 
ized the  East,  already  Grecianized 
by  Alexander,  and  in  organizing 
the  West  spread  over  it  the  Greek 
influences  to  which  he  was  himself 
subject. 

The  Roman  art  has  a  distinct 
form  of  its  own  in  portrait  sculp- 
ture, which  was  intentionally  avoid- 
ed by  the  idealizing  Greeks,     In  architecture  the  arch  and  dome,  borrowed 
from  the  Etruscans,  were  developed  in  buildings  of  colossal  and  imposing  mas- 
siveness,  whose  ornamental  forms  were,  however,  always  Greek. 


.Sli 


The  Pantheon  at  Rome.* 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  ROMAN  HISTORY. 

Without  refereDce  to  the  order  of  the  book.    (See  Baggestions  as  to  use  of  qaestions 
at  p.  69.) 

FIRST   LESSON-   FOR   REVIEW. 

What  were  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  time  of  Augustus  ?    (See  map  for 
the  Roman  Empire.) 

What  countries  were  included  in  the  Roman  Empire  in  his  time  ?    (P.  110.) 
What  countries  were  added  later?    (P.  110.) 


*  Built  in  the  reign  of  Augustus  as  portion  of  the  Baths  of  Agrippa,  but  after  erection  dedi* 
cated  as  a  temple  of  the  gods  of  the  conquered  nations. 


QtJESTJONS    FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE.         115 

Did  the  Empire  pnrsae  a  policy  of  conquest  ? 

What  additions  were  made  by  Tiberius  to  the  Empire  in  the  time  of  Augustus  ?   Ans.  South 

Germany.    (P.  110,  2d  paragraph.) 

What  territory  did  Rome  gain  by  conquests  of  Caesar  ?    (P.  106.) 

What,  by  conquests  of  Pompey  ?    (P.  96.) 

In  what  year  closed  the  Third  Mithridatic  War  ?    (P.  96.) 

Who  was  Roman  general  in  the  First  Mithridatic  War  ?    (P.  101.) 

Who  was  the  rival  general  nominated  in  public  concourse  ? 

When  did  Marius  and  Sulla  first  become  prominent  ? 

What  distinguished  man  was  born  in  the  year  of  the  battle  of  Aquae  Sextiae  ?    (P.  101.) 

What  significance  for  Roman  history  has  the  Jugurthine  War  ?    (P.  99.) 

Date  it  approximately  ?    (P.  104.)    How  did  this  corruption  come  about  ?    (Pp.  98,  99.) 

What  was  the  system  of  government  in  an  ancient  republic  ?    (P.  98.) 

Why  did  government  by  concourse  fail  in  the  Greek  states  ?    (Pp.  53,  98.) 

What  policy  secured  the  Roman  state  from  parallel  disaster  ?    (P.  84.) 

But  what  influence  on  government  by  concourse  had  the  policy  of  extending  the  Roman 

rights  to  conquered  peoples  ?    (P.  98.) 

When  did  the  number  of  Roman  citizens  begin  to  augment  rapidly  ?    Ana.  After  the  Sam- 

nite  Wars  ? 

SECOl^^D  LESSOi^   FOR  REVIEW. 

When  did  the  Samnite  Wars  begin  ?    (P.  86.) 

When  did  they  end  ? 

What  central  date  of  Greek  history  falls  within  their  extreme  dates  ?    (P.  86.) 

What  additions  of  territory  did  they  secure  ?    (P.  86.) 

What  was  the  extent  of  Roman  ^territory  before  the  Samnite  Wars  ?    (P.  81.) 

What  fact  exhibits  the  small  area  of  the  Roman  state  in  the  5th  century  b.  c.  ?    (P.  81.) 

What  addition  of  territory  was  next  secured  after  the  Samnite  Wars  ?    (P.  87.) 

When  was  Sicily  acquired?    (P.  91.) 

What  increase  of  the  state  came  next  ? 

What  was  the  extent  of  Roman  power  about  200  b.  c.  ?    (P.  94.) 

Give,  in  the  order  of  time,  dates  of  acquisition  of  territory  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  ? 
(P.  97.) 

What  period  was  destined  to  give  Roman  rights  to  the  provinces  ?    (P.  97.) 

Who  admitted  Gauls  and  Spaniards  to  the  Roman  senate  ?    (P.  107.) 

After  what  war  were  Roman  rights  given  to  all  Italian  freemen  ?    (P.  100.) 

How  long  before  the  Samnite  Wars  did  the  monarchy  give  way  to  the  republic  ? 

What  political  contest  began  as  soon  as  monarchy  was  overthrown  ?    (P.  81.) 

When  did  this  contest  end  ?    (P.  81.) 

How  does  the  date  of  beginning  territorial  expansion  relate  to  the  date  for  the  end  of  this 
contest  ?    (Pp.  81,  86.) 

THIRD   LESSOliT  FOR  REVIEW. 

What  Macedonian  kings  were  reigning  in  the  time  of  the  Samnite  Wars  ?    (Pp.  57,  58.) 
How  far  distant  is  the  date  for  the  battle  of  Chaeronea  from  the  date  for  the  beginning  of 
the  Samnite  Wars  ? 


116  ROME. 

Who  was  expelled  firom  Athens  when  the  last  Roman  king  was  driven  from  his  throne  in 
B.C.  510?    (P.  43.) 

How  long  had  the  Roman  republic  existed  when  the  Ionic  revolt  began  ?    (P.  44.) 

What  Roman  king  first  enrolled  ihe  plebeians  in  the  service  of  the  state?     (P.  78.) 

In  what  century  ? 

In  what  century  lived  Solon  ?    (P.  42.) 

When  did  Alba  Longa  yield  to  Rome  the  precedence  in  Latium  ?    (P.  T7.) 

IIow  long  was  this  after  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ?    (P.  20.) 

How  long  before  Cyrus  ?    (P.  80.) 

How  long  after  the  foundation  of  Rome? 

How  long  before  this  foundation  ended  the  old  empire  of  Egypt  ?  the  empire  of  Chaldsea? 

How  long  before  Rome  was  Carthage  founded  ? 

How  long  after  Rome's  foundation  did  Carthage  continue  mistress  of  the  Western  Medi- 
terranean ?    (P.  93.) 

What  was  the  character  of  Phoenician  rule  ?    (P.  90.) 

Why  did  the  rise  of  Rome  menace  the  existence  of  Carthage  ?    (P.  90.) 


FOURTH   LESSON^   FOR   REVIEW. 

What  civilized  nations  were  there  in  Italy  before  Rome  was  founded  ?    (P.  75.) 

What  was  the  character  of  this  civilization  ? 

When  did  the  Greek  colonies  of  South  Italy  become  Roman  ? 

After  what  date  did  the  Grecianized  countries  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  become  Roman  ? 

At  what  time  does  a  Roman  literature  begin  to  appear  ?    (P.  113.) 

Whence  did  it  draw  much  material  and  inspiration  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  the  Roman  art  ?    (P.  114.) 

What  was  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  Roman  as  opposed  t<J  that  of  the  Greek  ?    (Pp.  85, 114.) 

How  long  did  Roman  rule  continue  in  the  West  after  the  Christian  era  ?   (P.  75.) 

How  long  in  the  East  ? 

i 


BOOK    U. 

MODERN    HISTORY 


THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  AFTER  THE  CHRISTIAN 
ERA,  AND  THE  CONTINENTAL  STATES  OF 
WESTERN  EUROPE  DOWN  TO  THE  PRESENT 
TIME. 


THE 

ROMAN    EMPIRE 

FROM  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA. 


THE   CHRISTIAN    ERA. 


The  birth  of  our  Saviour,  during  the  reign  of  Augustus,  in 
the  Roman  province  of  Syria,  divides  the  ancient  from  the  modern 
world.  In  the  narrower  use  of  the  word  "  modern  "  it  relates,  how- 
ever, to  the  period  after  1500  A.  D.,  when  the  modern  states  of 
Europe  had  come  to  have  in  general  the  boundaries  and  divisions 
of  the  present  time.  The  progress  of  the  Christian  faith,  although 
bitterly  opposed  by  pagan  Rome,  was  especially  rapid  and  general 
within  the  limits  of  the  Empire,  in  whose  boundaries  were  combined 
all  the  countries  of  the  civilized  world.  The  facilities  of  intercourse 
established  by  the  inner  peace  of  the  Empire,  and  the  use  of  Latin 
and  Greek  as  languages  of  general  intercourse-  assisted  this  progress. 
But  the  first  three  centuries  of  Christianity  were  a  period  of  spiritual 
transformation  marked  in  written  history  mainly  by  the  persecu- 
tions which  it  provoked.  Some  notice  of  the  early  Fathers  of  the 
Church  is  reserved  for  a  future  section.  The  poUtical  history  of 
the  Roman  state  under  Augustus  and  his  successors  is  continued  in 
the  next. 

EMPERORS  OF  THE  FIRST  CENTURY. 

Augustus B.  C.  37— A.  D.  14 

Tiberius A.  d.  14—    "    37 

Caligula "    87—    "    41 

Claudius , ,         .,.,,.,.,    "    41—   "    54 


120  THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

Nero A.  D.  C4 — a.  d.  68 

Galba,  Otho,  ViteUius "    68—    "    69 

Vespasian "    69—    "     79 

Titus "     79—"    81 

Domitian "    81—    "    96 

Nerva ; "    96—    "    98 

Augustus  was  a  man  of  deep  character  and  subtle   nature, 
cruel  in  the  attainment  and  humane  in  the  exercise  of  power.    "  He 

studiously  veiled   his  suprem- 
acy under  the  old  republican 
"^  forms,  kept  the  people  amused, 

carried  on  wars  only  to  defend 
existing    frontiers,    promoted 
agriculture,  literature,  and  the 
'rv^^^a-;s^^^^^^^^^^^^     arts,  and  made  immense  im- 
^"*''"^^^^^^^^^^^^     provements    in     the    city    of 

Eome."  His  period  was  that 
of  Livy  the  historian,  and  of 
the  poets  Virgil,  Horace,  and 
Ovid,  already  mentioned. 
Of  his  four  immediate 
A  Street  in  Pompeii  successors— Tibcrius,  Calig- 

ula, Claudius,  and  Nero — his- 
tory relates  little  that  is  edifying.  Their  united  reigns  reach  from 
A.  D.  14  to  A.  D.  68.  The  character  of  Claudius  alone,  in  its  appar- 
ent weakness,  contrasts  favorably  with  the  cruelties  of  the  others. 
This  emperor  was  distinguished  also  by  his  zeal  for  public  works. 
Tiberius  is  represented  by  the  Eoman  historians  as  a  sanguinary 
tyrant,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  was  well  regarded  by  the  prov- 
inces for  strict  and  just  administration.  To  the  infamy  of  Nero's 
private  character  is  added  the  odium  attaching  to  his  persecution 
of  the  Christians— the  first  general  persecution. 

During  the  persecution  under  Nero,  St.  Paul  was  arrested  and 
brought  before  his  tribunal.     Ilis  eloquence  saved  him  from  the  "fury  of  the 


EMPERORS    OF    THE    FIRST    CENTURY. 


121 


lions,"  but  he  was  sent  to  prison.  St.  Peter  was  still,  however,  at  liberty,  and 
wont  to  celebrate  the  divine  mysteries  in  the  house  of  a  Christian  named 
Pudens.  This  has  been  regarded  as  the  first  church  in  Rome.  The  conversion 
by  St.  Peter  of  a  woman  of  Nero's  household  aroused  the  anger  of  the  tyrant, 
and  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  Both  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  were  now  con- 
demned to  capital  punishment,  St.  Peter  was  crucified  head  downward  and 
buried  on  the  spot  now  covered  by  the  palace  of  the  Vatican  and  the  church 
of  St.  Peter.  On  the  same  day  St.  Paul  was  beheaded  a  short  distance  from 
the  site  of  the  later  Basilica,  "St.  Paul's  outside  the  walls"  (p.  137).  The 
pontificate  of  St.  Peter  lasted  thirty-three  years,  of  which  twenty-five  were 
spent  at  Rome.  The  following  Popes,  until  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century, 
were,  like  him,  nearly  all  martyrs.     {Abbe  Darras  is  the  authority  followed.) 

In  68,  Nero  was  driven  from 
the  throne  and  took  his  own 
life,  to  escape  the  conspirators 
who  were  pursuing  him.  A 
year  of  confusion  followed  in 
which  three  emperors,  chosen 
by  the  soldiers,  quickly  suc- 
ceeded one  another — Galba, 
Otho,  Vitellius. 

Vespasian,  69 — 79,  also 
elected  by  the  legions,  re-estab- 
lished order.  In  his  reign  was 
erected  the  wonderful  amphi- 
theatre, still  standing,  partially 
ruined,  in  Rome,  known  as  the 
Colosseum.  It  covers  five  acres 
of  ground  and  seated  80,000 
spectators. 

In  the  time  of  Nero  the  Jews 
of  Palestine  had  revolted  against  the  Roman  rule.    Vespasian  had 
been  the  general  appointed  to  subdue  them.     This  task  was  trans- 
ferred, after  his  accession,  to  his  son  Titus.     Jerusalem  was  be- 
sieged and  destroyed.     This  destruction  is  commemorated  by  the 


Titus.    From  an  ancient  bust  in  the  Naples 
Museum. 


122  THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

Arch  of  Titus,  still  standing  in  Rome.  A  sculptured  relief  on  the 
side  of  the  arch  represents  the  Koman  soldiers  bearing  off  the 
seven-branched  candlestick  taken  from  the  Jewish  temple. 

Titus  succeeded  his  father.  His  reign  was  short,  but  well  con- 
ducted. Its  leading  event  was  the  destruction,  by  volcanic  eruptions 
from  Vesuvius,  of  the  towns  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  The 
former  town,  destroyed  by  lava,  has  offered  great  difficulties  to  ex- 
cavation. Pompeii,  covered  only  with  ashes,  whose  removal  is  still 
in  progress,  affords  a  perfect  picture  of  the  domestic  life  of  antiquity  ; 
of  its  private  dwellings,  their  furniture,  utensils,  and  decorative 
wall  paintings.  All  objects  from  Pompeii  are  kept  in  the  museum 
of  Naples. 

Domitian,  brother  of  Titus,  succeeded  him.  His  character  was 
cruel  and  gloomy,  but  the  officials  were  noted  under  his  strict  gov- 
ernment for  incorruptibility.  The  conquest  of  Britain,  begun  under 
Claudius,  was  completed  in  his  reign.  Three  columns  of  a  temple 
built  by  Domitian  are  still  standing  on  the  Roman  Forum.  To  the 
reign  of  Domitian  and  the  period  following  belongs  the  historian 
Tacitus.  The  naturalist  Pliny  belongs  to  the  times  of  Vespasian 
and  Titus;  the  philosopher  Seneca  to  the  reign  of  Nero.  The 
emperor  was  assassinated  by  his  own  wife,  who  headed  a  conspiracy 
against  him. 

The  Senate  then  elected  Nerva,  who  reigned  two  years  and 
adopted  Trajan  as  his  successor.  Ruins  of  part  of  the  Forum  built 
by  Nerva  are  still  standing. 

EMPERORS  OF  THE  SECOND  CENTURY. 


Trajan 

Hadrian 

Antoninus  Pius 

Marcus  Aurelius •  • 

Commodus 

Pertinax,  Didius  Julianus 

The  system  of  adoption,  begun  by  Nerva,  gave  four  excellent 


A.  D.     98— A.  D.  117 

117—  "  138 

138—  "  161 

161—  "  180 

180—  "  192 

192—  "  193 


EMPERORS  OF  THE  SECOND  CENTURY 


123 


rulers  to  the  empire — Trajan,  Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  Marcus 
Aurelius.  Their  reigns  lasted  together  eighty-two  years — the 
Golden  Age  of  the  empire. 

Trajan  added  to  the  Roman  territory  a  province  beyond  the 
Danube — Dacia ;  part  of  Southern  Hungary  and  Roumania.    The 


The  Column  of  Trajan  and  Ruins  of  his  Basilica,  or  Business  Exchange. 

modern  Roumanians  boast  of  their  descent  from  the  soldier  colo- 
nists of  this  emperor.  The  Column  of  Trajan  still  stands  in  Rome 
to  commemorate  his  Dacian  victories.  Trajan  also  made  conquests 
in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  valley  (from  the  Parthians)  of  Mesopotamia 
and  Babylonia.    These  were  abandoned  by  Hadrian. 


124 


THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE 


The  reign  of  Hadrian  was  one  of  constant  travel  and  personal 
administrative  care  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  The  ruins  of  his  for- 
tified wall  in  Britain,  built  to  protect  the  Roman  British  from  the 
inroads  of  the  barbarian  Picts  and  Scots  of  the  Highlands,  are  still 
to  be  seen.  The  gigantic  tomb  of  Hadrian  has  become  a  Papal 
fortress — the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo  (p.  75). 

Antoninus  Pius  enjoyed  a  long  and  peaceful  reign.  He  was  a 
ruler  of  mild  character  and  great  ability. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  161-180,  a  man  of  philosophic  taste  and 
benevolent  disposition,  succeeded  him.  In  his  time  the  wars  with 
German  tribes  beyond  the  Danube,  in  modern  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia, began  to  assume  an  alarming  aspect. 

Under  Commodus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
these  wars  continued.  Oommodus  was  obliged  to  purchase  a  dis- 
honorable peace.    He  was  at  once  cruel  and  incapable. 

EMPERORS  OF  THE  THIRD   CENTURY. 


Septimius  Severus a.  d. 

Caracalla 

Macrinus,  Heliogabalus 

Alexander  Severus 

Maximin 

(Rival  emperors— Gold ian  I.,  Gordian  II.,  Pupienus,  Balbinus.) 

Philip 

Decius 

Gallus 

-^milian •. 

Valerian 


Gallienus  (associate  emperor). 

Aurelian 

Tacitus,  Probus,  Carus 

Numerian,  Carinus 

Diocletian 


193-211 
311-318 
318-333 
333-335 
335-344 

344-349 
349-351 
351-353 
353-353 
353-360 
354-368 
370-375 
375-383 
383-384 
384-305 


From  the  time  of  the  assassination  of  Commodus  dates  an  entire 
century  of  more  or  less  disorder. and  military  license.    Since  the  foundation  of 


EMPERORS    OF    THE    THIRD    CENTURY.  125 

the  empire  the  emperor  had  been  the  commander  of  the  army.  The  system  of 
government  was  one  which  made  the  commander  of  the  army  also  ruler  of  the 
state.  During  the  constant  barbarian  attacks  on  the  frontiers,  which  continued 
all  through  the  3d  century,  able  generals  were  an  absolute  necessity.  By  a 
stern  law  of  self-preservation,  an  incapable  general  had  to  be  displaced.  But 
an  emperor  could  only  be  overthrown  by  violence,  and  since  there  was  no  power 
in  the  state  above  that  of  the  commanding  general,  the  soldiers  became,  in  the 
8d  century,  the  judges  and  creators  of  the  emperors.  Often  they  were  overthrown 
by  conspiracies  of  discontent  caused  by  strict  discipline ;  at  other  times  they 
were  overthrown  for  incompetence.  In  ninety-five  years  following  the  death  of 
Commodus  there  were  twenty-seven  emperors.  Only  the  leading  names  among 
these  need  be  mentioned. 

Septimius  Severus  was  a  stern  and  successful  ruler.  His 
triumphal  arch  still  stands  in  the  Roman  Forum.  In  his  time 
lived  the  most  famous  lights  of  legal  science — Papinian,  Paulus, 
and  Ulpian. 

Caracalla  was  son  and  successor  of  this  emperor.  The  ruins 
of  his.  famous  baths  are  an  astounding  evidence  of  the  perfec- 
tion of  material  civilization  under  the  empire.  The  character  of 
Caracalla  was  bad,  and  hi^  edict  giving  the  rights  of  citizenship  to 
all  freemen  of  the  empire  is  attributed  to  mercenary  motives — to 
the  design  of  increasing  the  revenue  by  increasing  the  number  of 
taxable  persons.  It  was,  notwithstanding,  the  final  and  crowning 
step  of  the  process  by  which  the  Eoman  empire  carried  political 
equality  and  equal  rights  to  all  the  nations  it  had  conquered.  After 
the  short  reign  of  Macrinus  comes  the  name  of  Heliogabalus,  the 
most  infamous  in  personal  character  of  all  the  emperors.  His  cousin, 
Alexander  Severus,  was  a  mild  and  worthy  ruler. 

A  time  of  terrible  confusion  followed  the  death  of  Alexander 
Severus.  Barbarian  attacks  and  a  succession  of  emperors,  often 
assassinated  by  the  soldiers,  continue  until  Aurelian,  270-275. 
Meantime  the  reign  of  Decius,  about  250,  is  distinguished  by  the 
most  teiTible  Christian  persecution  yet  experienced.  Its  persistence 
and  atrocity  are  a  testimony  to  the  constantly  increasing  numbers 
of  the  Christians. 


126 


THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 


The  reign  of  Aurelian  is  distinguished  by  his  expedition 
against  Palmyra,  the  famous  city  and  state  of  Queen  Zenobia,  lying 
east  of  Damascus,  in  an  oasis  of  the  Syrian  desert.  Zenobia  was 
carried  prisoner  to  Eome.  Palmyra  was  de- 
stroyed. Its  ruins  are  still  highly  remarkable. 
Another  series  of  short  reigns,  with  violent  ends 
in  general,  intervenes  before  Diocletian,  284-305. 
With  Diocletian  begins  a  change  of  sys- 
tem which  stopped  the  violence  and  disorders 
of  the  century  preceding.  His  expedient  was 
the  multiplication  of  contemporaneous  em- 
perors, dividing  the  government.  This  was  a 
means  of  confronting  the  barbarian  attacks 
on  different  frontiers,  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
with  generals  in  supreme  command.  It  also 
diminished  the  chances  of  successful  conspira- 
cies, which  could  not  well  be  carried  out  in  far 
distant  places  at  the  same  time. 

Under  this  emperor  took  place  the  tenth 
general  persecution,  but  this  was  finally  stopped 
by  imperial  order.  Notwithstanding  the  hostility  of  Diocletian  to 
Christianity,  a  contemporary  Pope,  Eutychian,  was  his  relation. 
One  emperor  of  the  3d  century,  Philip,  had  been  a  Christian, 
although  not  publicly  avowed.  Alexander  Severus  had  so  far 
favored  Christianity  as  to  keep  the  statue  of  Christ  in  his  palace. 


Eomau  Ituius,  Balbek, 
Syria. 


GENERAL   REVIEW    OF   THE    EMPIRE    DURING    THE    FIRST 
THREE   CENTURIES   AFTER   CHRIST. 


Map  Study,  p.  116.— The  Roman  provinces  were :  Syria  ;  Asia  Minor  ;  Tlirace  ;  Mace- 
donia ;  Dacia ;  Greece ;  Eastern  and  Central  Europe  south  of  the  Danube,  including  the  parts 
of  modem  Austria  and  Germany  south  of  that  river  ;  Switzerland  and  Germany  eat>t  of  the 
Rhine  ;  Britain  ;  France  ;  Bfl«,'ium  ;  Spain  ;  North  Africa ;  Egypt ;  and  Italy.  These  deeig- 
natiouH  of  provinces  are  for  the  countries  in  general,  without  reference  lo  the  Roman  local 
divisions.    For  instance,  '•  Syria"  implies  Judssa,  etc.    The  dates  of  the  book  for  the  acani»»- 


GENERAL     RKVIEW     OP    THE     EMPIRE.  12? 

tion  of  these  provinces,  as  given  in  earlier  sections,  are  fixed  for  the  beginnings  of  the  actual 
ascendency,  which  was  sometimes  earlier  than  the  legal  acquisition. 

The  boiindaries  were  :  On  the  south — the  African  Desert  of  Sahara  ;  on  the  west — the 
Atlantic  Ocean ;  on  the  east— the  Arabian  Desert,  the  mountains  of  Armenia ;  on  the  north— 
the  Black  Sea,  the  Carpathians,  the  Danube,  and  the  Khine. 

By  the  political  union  of  all  these  countries  a  homogeneous  civilization  was  dif- 
fused around  the  Mediterranean  basin.  The  boundaries  of  civilization  corresponded  in  general 
with  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  empire  was  not  only  a  change  of  government 
from  the  earlier  republican  form,  it  was  a  change  of  policy  in  the  treatment  of  the  provincials. 
It  was  the  substitution  of  the  power  of  a  single  ruler  for  life,  whose  mission  was  the  sup- 
pression of  extortion  and  the  preservation  of  public  order,  for  the  power  of  a  constantly 
changing  body  of  extortionate  officials  whose  short  terms  of  office  were  an  incentive  to  cor- 
ruption and  oppression.  But  a  system  which  is  beneficial  on  the  whole,  may  often  be  admin- 
istered by  bad  men.  The  characters  of  many  emperors  are  disfigured  in  their  private  lives  by 
horrible  crimes.  They  do  not,  however,  appear  like  the  despots  of  Eastern  nations,  who  often 
systematically  crush  their  subjects  and  rob  them  of  their  property. 

The  word  Roman,  used  of  the  times  of  the  empire,  does  not  indicate  distinction  of 
nationality.  The  Roman  building  in  Syria  may  have  been  made  by  a  Gaul,  or  the  Roman 
building  in  France  by  a  Syrian,  just  as  a  Roman  building  in  Rome  may  have  been  made  by  an 
architect  from  Asia  Minor.  The  word  Roman,  referring  to  the  times  of  the  empire,  means  a 
person  of  whatever  nation  having  the  protection  of  Roman  law,  whose  country  was  defended 
by  soldiers  having  Roman  pay  and  directed  by  a  general  who  received  orders  from  the  em- 
peror ;  or  it  refers  to  objects  having  a  common  style  and  character,  wherever  found  witliin  the 
borders  of  the  empire. 

This  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  Roman  empire  is  indicated  in  the  birthplaces  of 
the  emperors.  Constantine  the  Great,  soon  to  be  mentioned,  was  bom  at  York,  in  England  ; 
Diocletian  was  a  Dalmatian  ;  Probus  and  Aurelian  were  lUyrians  ;  Macrinus  was  a  Moor ; 
Maximin,  a  Thracian ;  Philip,  an  Arab ;  Heliogabalus  and  Alexander  Severus  were  Syrians ; 
Caracalla  and  Septimius  Severus  were  African  Phoenicians  ;  Marcus  Aurelius  was  a  Spaniard ; 
Antoninus  Pius  was  a  Gaul :  Hadrian  and  Trajan  were  Spaniards ;  Nerva  was  a  Cretan  ;  Domi- 
tian,  Titus,  and  Vespasian  were  Italian,  but  not  of  Roman  blood— leaving,  as  distinctively  Roman 
emperors  by  blood,  only  the  first  five.  So,  for  instance,  the  Apostle  St.  Paul  from  Tarsus,  in 
Asia  Minor,  was  a  citizen  of  Rome.  The  Latin  poet  Ennius,  the  father  of  Latin  literature, 
was  a  Greek  ;  the  Latin  poet  Plautus  was  an  African  ;  the  Latin  poet  Terence  was  a  Spaniard. 
Maecenas,  the  patron  of  Latin  literature  of  the  Augustan  age,  was  an  Etruscan  ;  the  poet 
Martial  and  the  philosopher  Seneca  were  Spaniards.  In  the  1st  century  A.  d.,  soon  after  the 
time  of  Cicero,  the  leading  school  of  Latin  eloquence  at  Rome  was  taught  by  Spaniards.  In 
the  2d  century  a.  d.,  the  most  famous  Latin  writers  were  from  Prance  and  Africa.  The  lead- 
ing school  of  Roman  jurisprudence  was  Beyrout,  in  Syria.  Papinian  and  Ulpian,  among  the 
most  famous  of  the  Roman  lawyers  of  the,  empire,  were  Syrian  Phoenicians. 

The  liberal  tendency  of  Roman  political  development  had  shown  itself  in  the  old 
republic,  when  the  plebeians,  mostly  emigrants  to  Rome,  were  admitted  gradually  to  the  rights 
of  the  original  settlers  (patricians).  The  process  accomplished  in  the  original  republic,  was 
then  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  for  all  Italy.  The  wonderful  permanence  of  Roman  conquests 
in  Italy  is  known  to  have  been  secured  by  admitting  the  conquered  populations  to  full  or  lim- 
ited rights  of  Roman  citizenship.  The  process  went  on  under  the  empire  until  the  edict  of 
Caracalla  making  all  freemen  citizens.    All  nationalities  had  meantime  been  allowed  represen' 


i2g  THE    ROMA^    EiviPlilg. 

tation  in  the  senate  except  native  Egyptians.  Caracalla  also  removed  this*  last  restriction. 
There  was  still  a  development  of  this  tendency  left  for  the  Christian  Roman  time— namely, 
the  manumission  of  the  slaves. 

It  will  naturally  be  understood  that  these  cosmopolite  tendencies  met  with  constant  oppo- 
sition on  the  part  of  certain  Romans.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  the  early  days  of  the 
empire— the  times  of  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Claudius,  Caligula,  and  Nero— when  the  aristocratic 
party  of  native  Romans  saw  themselves  supplanted  by  the  provincials.  This  aristocratic  party 
of  resistance  to  equal  rights  naturally  found  sympathizing  support  from  men  of  letters,  who 
were  shocked  by  the  relative  barbarism  of  the  new  provincial  Roman  citizens.  The  emperors 
represented  the  policy  of  enfranchisement  for  the  provinces,  and  were  bitterly  attacked  by  tbe 
historians  of  the  time.  Their  characters  were  blackened  in  many  cases  unjustly.  The  unde- 
niably atrocious  cruelties  jiractised  by  some  of  the  early  emperora  were  generally  provoked  by 
the  assassin  policy  of  the  reactionai-y  party,  which  murdered  Cajsar,  the  father  of  the  provinces, 
and  continued  to  threaten  his  successors  with  his  fate. 

Civilization  of  the  Empire.— By  v.hat  has  been  said  of  the  political  greatness  of  pagan 
Rome,  we  are  not  to  underrato  the  undeniable  corruption  of  civilization  in  the  period  of  the 
empire.  This  was  admitted  by  the  time  itself.  But  some  of  the  nob'.est  spirits  among  the 
pagans— for  instance,  Marcus  Aurelius— were  not  inclined  to  the  teaching  of  Christ,  by  which 
alone  morality  could  be  redeemed.  All  learned  Christian  writers  admit  the  nobility  of  spirit 
and  high  conception  of  duty  often  found  in  pagan  authors,  but  it  is  also  agreed  that  the  best 
period  of  antiquity  lies  far  back  of  the  empire,  in  the  time  of  the  Greek  republics  before  Alex- 
ander, or  of  the  Roman  republic  before  200  b.  c.  The  pagan  cultivation  of  the  empire  was 
only  an  afterglow,  without  lasting  warmth  or  brightness.  This  being  understood,  it  is  impor- 
tant, before  passing  to  events  which  introduced  a  new  period  of  histoiy,  to  rate  at  its  full  worth 
the  Imperial  material  civilization.  For  this,  by  various  channels,  has  become  the  property  of 
modern  times. 

The  countries  of  the  empire  were  relatively  weak  in  pure  and  vigorous  art,  and  the  litera- 
ture shows  less  and  less  spontaneous  power.  But  in  luxuries,  comforts,  and  inventions  the 
time  will  compare  favorably  with  our  own. 

Facilities  for  Travel.— Vessels  sailed  from  Messina  to  Alexandria  in  six  anrl  a  half  days ; 
steamers  now  require  six  days  for  this  distance.  Travel  on  land  was  not  conducted  with  the 
celerity  of  steam,  but  it  was  more  expeditious  than  it  has  ever  been  since  until  1830.  In  many 
countries  tte  state  of  roads  and  bridges  was  better  than  it  has  ever  been  since— viz.,  in  Greece, 
countries  of  later  European  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  North  Africa,  Spain.  In  England, 
France,  Italy,  and  South  Germany,  roads  and  bridges  were  better  than  they  have  ever  been 
since  until  1800. 

Baths.— Hundreds  of  cities  were  then  more  bountiftilly  supplied  with  water  than  modern 
London,  the  present  metropolis  of  the  world.  The  city  of  Rome,  in  our  own  time,  is  the  most 
plentifully  supplied  with  water  of  any  in  Europe,  and  it  depends  on  three  only  of  its  ancient 
fourteen  aqueducts  (p.  97).  All  provincial  cities  of  importance  boasted  splendid  public  baths. 
Those  built  by  Caracalla  accommodated  sixteen  thousand  bathers,  and  contained  also,  like 
several  other  similar  structures  in  Rome,  lecture-rooms,  libraries,  gymnasiums,  art  museums, 
public  club  rooms,  etc.,  all  free  of  charge.  There  were  at  least  five  other  bath  structures  little 
inferior  to  those  of  Caracalla. 

Arts  and  Sciences.— Houses  in  Rome  were  built  six  stories  high.  Hackney  coaches 
were  used.  The  masonry  work,  plaster,  cement,  brick,  and  paints  of  the  Roman  time  were  fur 
Btiperior  to  our  own.  The  arts  of  Bculptnrc  and  of  architecture  existed  in  much  higher  perfection 


DISTRIBUTION    OP    RACES.  129 

than  with  us.  Astronomers  and  geographers  taught  the  rotundity  of  the  earth.  Its  motion 
round  the  sun  had  also  been  discovered  in  Alexandria,  the  diameter  of  the  earth  had  been 
measured  there,  and  the  distances  of  the  fixed  stars  had  been  approximately  indicated  in  the 
3d  century  b.  c.  (p.  68),  but  this  knowledge  was  gradually  lost  in  the  time  of  the  empire.  The 
study  of  medicine  was  cultivated,  and  an  anatomist  of  the  2d  century  a.  d.  pointed  out  some 
of  the  more  minute  differences  between  the  structure  of  the  ape  and  the  human  being. 

The  prosperity  of  some  countries  was  far  greater  than  now— for  instance  of  Syria, 
North  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Spain.  Spain  supported  forty  millions  of  people  ;  it  now  supports  eight 
millions.  In  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  living  the  period  of  the  empire  was  not  surpassed, 
if  it  was  equaled,  by  our  own.  We  were  also  outdone  in  the  matter  of  colossal  fortunes  and 
the  extravagant  displays  of  wealth. 

Social  and  Moral  Corruption.— A  disgraceful  stain  on  the  time  was  its  pleasure  In 
the  shows  of  the  gladiators.  These  were  frowned  upon  by  many  of  the  emperors,  but  in  vain, 
Christianity  alone  could  combat  with  the  decay  of  Paganism,  and  the  shows  of  the  arena  were 
abolished  by  a  Christian  monk.  Social  and  moral  corruption  were  then  compatible,  as  they 
are  now,  with  enormous  material  prosperity,  with  a  high  development  of  science,  and  with 
many  wonderful  inventions.  (In  406  the  monk  Telemachus  forced  his  way  into  the  arena  and 
threw  himself  between  the  contending  gladiators.  He  was  instantly  killed,  but  the  horror 
of  the  populace  at  his  martyrdom  led  to  the  abolition  of  the  games.) 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  RACES   IN  THE  TIMES  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 

Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  countries  were  mainly  peopled  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  Era  by  the  races  of  our  own  time,  but  their  distribution  was  not  entirely  the 
same  as  now.  The  race  from  which  Bohemians,  Poles,  and  Kussians  are  descended  (the 
Slavonic  race,  p.  31)  was  then,  as  now,  located  in  Eastern  Europe  ;  but  the  Laps  and  Finns 
were  pushed  down  much  farther  in  the  North-east,  and  the  Germans  were  spread  farther  to 
the  East  than  at  present.  Bohemia  had  not  yet  been  occupied  by  the  Bohemian  Slavonians  ; 
the  Hungarians  bad  not  yet  come  into  Europe.    The  Turks  were  also  unknown  to  Europe. 

The  countries  comprised  in  modern  Turkey  made  up  the  eastern  half  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  and,  as  has  been  explained  in  Greek  History,  had  been  conquered  by 
Macedonian  Greeks  under  Alexander  the  Great.  The  population  here  was  mixed— Thracians, 
between  Macedonia  and  the  Hellespont  ;  Greeks  on  both  sides  of  the  ^gean  and  around  the 
Black  Sea :  Armenians,  Galatians,  and  other  minor  native  populations  in  Asia  Minor,  were  all 
Greciauized  in  culture  and  mixed  with  Greek  blood.  The  Syrians,  Phoenicians,  and  Hebrews 
in  Syria  were  Greciauized  and  mixed  with  Greeks.  The  native  population  in  Egypt  was 
not  mixed,  but  the  rich  and  populous  capital  Alexandria  was  Greek  (with  a  large  Hebrew^ 
colony).  The  populations  mentioned,  as  far  as  within  the  Roman  boundaries,  all  come  under 
the  explanations  previously  given  of  the  Roman  civilization  and  Roman  citizenship. 

The  German  tribes,  uncivilized  by  Rome  (there  were  Romanized  Germans,  south  of 
the  Danube  and  west  of  the  Rhine),  pi-cssed  against  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  The  inhabitants 
of  Noi-way,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  were  Germanic  and  barbarian. 

France  and  Belg-ium  were  mainly  peopled  by  the  race  which  still  remains  there,  i.  e., 
by  Romanized  Gauls  or  Celts.  The  Romanized  British  belonged  to  the  same  Celtic  stock,  and 
so  also  the  Irish  and  Highland  Scotch  tribes  ;  both  the  latter  beyond  Roman  rule.  Spain 
was  peopled  by  Romanized  Celto-lberians  (p.  31).     In  modern  Spain  the  Iberian  blood  is 


130  THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

thought  to  appear  only  in  and  near  the  Pyrenees  (the  Basques).  There  was  also  Phoenician 
blood  (.from  Syria  by  way  of  Carthage)  on  the  coasts  of  Southern  and  Eastern  Spain. 

In  France  and  Spain  there  had  settled  a  large  number  of  Italian  and  Roman  colonists.  This 
holds  also  of  Northern  Africa,  where  there  were  also  Romanized  Berbers  or  Moors  ;  Roman- 
ized Libyans  and  Romanized  Phoenicians,  the  latter  originally  from  Syria. 

These  details  of  race  are  rather  perplexing,  and  they  may  be  used  for  reference  rather 
than  study.  It  is  important  mainly  to  understand  that  within  the  limits  of  the  empire  Latin 
and  Greek  supplanted  the  earlier  dialects  and  languages.  In  spoken  use  Latin  was  general  for 
the  West  and  Greek  was  general  for  the  East,  but  both  languages  were  understood  by  all  men 
of  letters  and  by  educated  persons.  All  races  within  the  limits  of  the  empire  were  amal- 
gamated by  commercial  intercourse,  by  intermarriage,  and  by  community  of  Greek  civiliza- 
tion. As  far  as  Europe  was  concerned,  it  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  civilized  and 
uncivilized.  The  Rhine  and  Danube  form  the  dividing  line.  The  uncivilized  division  is 
divided  again  into  Germanic  (West)  and  Slavonic  (East).  For  foregoing  matter  compare  a 
map  of  modern  Europe  with  map  at  p.  116. 


FATHERS   OF   THE    CHURCH    DURING    THE    FIRST   THREE 

CENTURIES. 

St.  Igmatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  suffered  martyrdom  under  Trajan. 

St.  Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  suffered  martyrdom  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  was 
a  disciple  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist. 

St.  Irenaeus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  was  disciple  of  St.  Polycarp  and  author  of  a  celebrated 
Treatise  against  Heresies.  The  chief  source  from  which  St.  Irenaeus  draws  his  proofs  is 
tradition,  of  which  he  shows  the  existence,  the  character  and  sacred  authority  in  the  Church. 
The  argument  of  tradition  had  a  peculiar  force  under  the  pen  of  a  writer  who  cotmted  between 
the  Apostles  and  himself  no  other  intermediary  than  the  famous  Bishop  of  Smyrna. 

St.  Justin  was  born  at  Neapolis,  in  Palestine,  of  a  family  of  pagan  colonists  established 
by  Vespasian.  Originally  a  pagan  philosopher,  he  was  converted  during  the  last  years  of  the 
reign  of  Hadrian.  He  was  the  first  to  open  a  Catholic  school,  where  he  moulded  the  minds  of 
his  pupils  in  the  faith.  His  first  publication,  entitled  "  Exhortation  to  the  Greeks,"  was  writ- 
ten to  dissipate  the  prejudices  of  the  pagans  against  Christianity.  This  work  was  a  prelude 
to  his  first  "  Apology,"  which  is  supposed  to  have  influenced  Antoninus  Pius  to  his  toleration 
of  the  Christians.  His  second  "  Apology,"  addressed  to  Marcus  Aureliui^,  was  soon  followed 
by  martyrdom. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  flourished  at  the  close  of  the  2d  century.  A  convert  from 
pagan  philosophy,  he  became  a  fervent  neophyte  ;  later,  a  zealous  priest  and  indefatigable 
apostle.  In  the  three  books  of  the  "  Pedagogue  "  and  in  the  eight  "  Stromata,"  the  two  most 
important  of  his  works  still  extant,  he  constantly  places  religion  at  the  summit  of  science  by 
proving  the  excellence  of  its  dogmas  and  their  harmony  with  sound  reason. 

TertuUian  was  born  at  Carthage,  160.  He  studied  all  the  sciences,  and  succeeded  in  all 
of  them.  Although  a  pagan  by  birth  and  prejudices,  he  could  not  resist  the  profound  im- 
pression made  on  his  soul  by  the  invincible  constancy  of  the  martyrs.  He  embraced  the  faith 
of  Jesus  Christ,  became  a  priest,  and  soon  after  addressed  to  the  magistrates  of  the  Roman 
empire  the  most  eloquent  "Apology  "  which  had  yet  been  written.    The  "African  Bossuet," 


FATHERS  OP  THE  CHURCH 


131 


nothing  would  be  wanting  to  his  glory  if  he  had  always  made  humility  the  safeguard  of  his 
genius. 

Orig-en  was  for  a  time  the  intimate  and  instructor  of  Alexander  Severus.  His  great 
work  was  a  version  of  the  Scriptures,  collating  and  placing  side  by  side  the  various  texts.  In 
his  Commentaries  some  erroneous  doctrines  are  found  ;  but  his  virtue,  his  love  of  poverty,  his 


The  Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome. 


humility,  the  courage  with  which  he  confessed  the  faith,  his  immense  labors,  can  never  be 
doubted  by  any  one.  Most  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Alexandria.  His  period  is  the  first  half  of 
the  3d  century. 

St.  Cyprian  was  Bishop  of  Carthage  in  the  3d  century.  He  suffered  martyrdom  under 
the  Emperor  Valerian,  258. 

St.  Laurence,  archdeacon  of  Rome,  died  in  the  same  persecution  (the  eighth).  He  was 
roasted  on  a  large  gridiron,  which  thus  becomes  his  emblem  in  Christian  art. 


132 


THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 


St.  Sebastian,  a  captain  of  the  Prjetorian  guards,  was  martyred  by  Diocletian.  He  is 
represented  by  the  Cliristian  artists  as  transfixed  with  arrows.    This  was  his  martyrdom. 

St.  Anthony  lived  to  witness  the  triumph  of  the  Church  under  Constantine.  He  was 
born  in  Egypt  of  noble  and  wealthy  parentage,  but  became  an  anchorite  of  the  desert.  Ttu 
foregoing  section  is  condensed  from  Abbe  Dongas'  "  History  of  the  Church.'''' 


EMPERORS   OF  THE    FOURTH    CENTURY. 

Constantine A.  d.  306-337 

Constantinus,  \ "  337-340 

Constantius,     V   "  337-350 

Constans,         ) "  337-361 

Julian  the  Apostate "  361-363 

Jovian,  Valentinian  I.,  Valens,  Gratian,  Valentinian  II. 

Tlieodosius  the  Great "  379-395 

Arcadius,  |   "  395-(408) 

Honorius,  j" "  395-(423) 

The  Roman  Empire   in  its   Christian   Period. — In    306 

began  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  at  first  with  coadjutors, 
with  whom  conflicts  soon  broke  out.  The  victory  at  the  Milviaii 
Bridge,  near  Rome,  over  his  rival  Maxentius,  in  312,  was  followed 
by  an  edict  granting  toleration  and  State  recognition  to  the  Chris- 
tians. 

"  Shortly  before  this  battle,  as  Constantine  was   marching  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  a 
brilliant  cross  of  light  formed  itself  in  the  midst  of  the  sky,  in  the  direction  of  the  sun.    On 

this  miraculous  cross  appeared  in 
HH^pPS^mmHHH       m^HBPmiHHI^I  ^^  ^^^  words  in  Greek : 

^B^^^^^^^^I^H  ^l^^^^'^^^^l^H  "  111  this  conquer."  The  apparition 
^^^gy^^^^R^^B  HK^)^  "  ,  ^^^  ^^^I^B  ^^  ^^^^  prodigy,  which  was  seen  by 
■/i^^'  '' V,  \  '^^  IB  ^^  \  \ -^  V  ^%^  ^^^  whole  army,  deeply  moved 
E    j  »         B       ■■'^     '^   1    ^-^^fwB       Constantine,  who  long  years  after- 

■i^fe^^i  .  -*•  :^M  wikx^i'^  V  t'^X'^s^vM  wards  related  it  to  Eusebius, 
■j^^^i-;.  .  ,I^B  BS^fe''"'  V-  -V^^^B  Bishop  of  Caesarea.  All  that  day 
^^BUkl)^^^^^^^!  ^Hji^^£.^^^^^^^^^H  ^^  ^^'^^  preoccupied  with  this  mar- 
^^^^^^^'^^^^^^       HH^HHliiilfl^l^B        vellous  The  night  follow- 

Eoman  Coin  of  the  4th  Century,  with  the  Christian      ing  the  same  cross  appeared  to  him 
Monogram,  Ch.  R.  anew.    The  next  day.  at  the  side  of 

the  Roman  eagles,  a  banner  of  a 
form  hitherto  unknown  was  remarked.  It  was  a  long  staff  of  gilded  wood,  bearing  near  the 
top  a  transverse  beam,  forming  a  cross,  from  the  arms  of  which  floated  a  banner  of  cloth  of 
gold  and  jewels.   Above  it  sparkled  a  crown  of  gold  and  precious  stones,  in  the  midst  of  which 


EMPERORS  OF  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY.    133 

was  the  monogram  of  Christ,  formed  of  the  two  Greek  initials  of  tliis  name.  This  monogram 
and  the  image  of  the  cross  were  also  placed  on  the  casques  of  the  soldiers.  Such  was 
the  famous  "Laharum,"  and  in  this  manner  the  cross,  reserved  until  then  as  an  infamous 
gibbet  for  the  vilest  criminals,  after  three  centuries  of  outrages,  incredulity  and  perse- 
cutions, triumphed  over  the  world  and  became  the  standard  of  the  Roman  legions."— 
(Abbe  Dabbas.) 

The  co-regent  and  remaining  rival  of  Constantine,  Licinius, 
ruler  in  the  East,  continued  to  oppress  the  Christians.  A  war  was 
the  consequence,  by  which  Licinius  was  overthrown,  and  in  324 
Constantine  became  sole  ruler  of  the  Roman  world. 

In  325  was  held  the  famous  Church  Council  of  Nice  (or 
Nicsea),  by  which  the  heresy  of  Arius,  denying  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  was  condemned. 

In  330  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  from  Rome  to 
Constantinople,  whose  older  name  of  Byzantium  was  changed  to 
honor  the  emperor. 

This  removal  of  the  capital  was  prompted  by  reasons  connected 
with  the  defence  of  the  Eastern  frontiers.  After  226  A.  d.,  the  new 
Persian  Empire  of  the  Sassanids  replaced  the  Parthians  in  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley.  (For  the  Parthians,  see  p.  61.)  Ever  since  the 
rise  of  this  new  Persian  empire,  which  made  itself  strong  by  copying 
the  arts  and  military  science  of  the  Romans,  the  emperors  had  been 
involved  in  constant  wars  on  the  Euphrates.  By  placing  the  capital 
at  Constantinople  the  seat  of  government  was  moved  as  far  as  pos- 
sible toward  the  East,  without  being  farther  removed  from  the  camps 
of  the  Danube  and  Rhine  frontier  than  before.  In  the  century 
before  Constantine,  the  most  vigorous  and  numerous  of  all  German 
tribes,  the  Goths,  had  moved  down  from  Scandinavia  and  were 
threatening  the  lower  Danube,  and  this  was  an  additional  reason 
for  centering  the  forces  of  government  at  Constantinople. 

It  is  manifest  that  these  military  considerations  would  not  sug- 
gest a  removal  of  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Popes  from 
its  first  home,  nor  did  Constantine  attempt  this.  On  the  contrary, 
he  made  the  See  of  Rome  more  powerful  than  before. 

Constantine,  dying  in  337,  was  followed  by  his  three  sons, 


134  THEROMANEMPIRE. 

Constan  tinus,  Constantius,  and  Constans.  Their  reigns  lasted  from 
337  to  361. 

Julian  the  Apostate,  361-363,  represented  the  expiring  effort 
of  Paganism  to  retrieve  itself,  but  even  the  effort  of  an  absolute 
emperor  made  not  the  slightest  impression. 

Theodosius  the  Great,  379-395,  closed  the  Pagan  temples 
and  made  their  worship  illegal.  Those  events  of  his  reign,  and  of 
that  of  his  predecessor  Valens,  which  belong  to  the  Grerman  inva- 
sions, are  related  in  the  history  of  Germany,  pp.  142,  143. 

The  century  of  Constantine  the  Great  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  history  of  Christianity,  For  no  sooner  was  the  conversion  of 
the  empire  in  general  accomplished  than  that  of  the  Gorman  tribes  (fore- 
most the  Goths)  began.  A  Gothic  bishop  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice 
in  325.  The  translation  of  the  Bible  by  the  German  (Gothic)  Bishop  Ulfilas, 
praised  for  its  fidelity  by  St.  Jerome,  is  the  oldest  literary  monument  of  Ger- 
manic language  (4th  century).  He  omitted  the  Books  of  the  Kings,  lest  their 
warlike  spirit  should  influence  the  savage  minds  of  the  Gothic  warriors.  Hand 
in  hand  with  the  Christianizing  process  went  on  the  Romanizing,  that  is,  the 
civilizing  process.  But  the  Arian  heresy  was  also  spread  far  and  wide  among 
the  Romanized  Germans  by  its  apostles. 

In  395  Theodosius  the  Great  died.  His  sons,  Arcadius  and 
Honorius,  divided  the  empire  between  them.  Arcadius  took  the 
Eastern  division,  Honorius  the  Western.  This  division  was  not 
intended  to  be  permanent.  It  was  made  for  convenience  of  gov- 
ernment in  times  when  military  commanders  with  imperial  powers 
were  absolutely  needed  in  more  than  one  place.  Such  divisions 
were  first  made  by  Diocletian ;  they  had  been  habitual  since.  But 
this  one  is  emphasized  by  history  because,  almost  immediately  after, 
the  Western  division  of  the  empire  was  overrun  by  the  German 
tribes. 

The  5th  century  is  the  time  of  the  German  invasions  and  of 
the  overthrow  of  Roman  temporal  authority  in  the  West.  The 
account  of  these  events  of  the  5th  century  will  be  given  in  con- 
nection with  the  German  tribes  which  took  part  in  them. 


BYZANTINE    ROME 


135 


Mosaic  Portrait  of  Jus- 
tinian, at  Ravenna. 


Byzantine  or  East-Rome. — The  temporal  empire  of  Rome 

in  Eastern  Europe  continued  a  thousand  years 

beyond  the  5th  century,  till  1453,  when  the  last 

of  the  Roman  emperors  fell,  fighting  bravely  in 

the  breach  of  the  city  walls  over  which   the 

Turks  were  pouring  to  the  sack  of  Constanti- 
nople.    A  glance  at  a  modern  map  of  Europe 

will  exhibit  the  approximate  correspondence  of 

area  between  modern  Turkey  and  the  provinces 

of   the  Roman   Empire  after  the  5th  century 

A.  D.     (Compare  map  at  p.  140.)     This  Roman 

Empire  of  the  East  is  known,  however,  in  gen- 
eral usage  as  the  Byzantine 
Empire.  Byzantium  was 
the  older  name  of  the  city, 
re-named  by  Con  stan tine, 
Constantinople ;  hence  this 
adjective. 

After  the  Emperor 
Justinian  (6th  century), 
famous  for  his  great  codi- 
fication of  the  Roman  Law, 
the  Corpus  Juris,  which 
is  still  the  great  authority 
for  legal  students ;  the 
written  history  of  Eastern 
Rome  is  studied  only  by 
specialists.  But  the  un- 
written history  of  that 
slow  process  by  which  the 
civilization  of  the  old  world, 
partially  buried  in  the 
West  under  the   ruins  of 

the  German  invasions,  filtered  back  into  Europe  by  Italian  com- 


The  Church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Cout^tantinople.    Built 
by  Justinian.    A  Turkish  Mosque  since  1453. 


136  THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

merce,  is  not  to  be  estimated  from  the  pages  of  books.  At  the 
moment  when  this  process  was  completed,  the  Turks  drove  the  sur- 
viving representatives  of  ancient  culture  into  Italy,  1453,  where 
they  assisted  in  the  Revival  of  Learning,  and  aided  the  culture  of 
the  Renaissance. 

The  Byzantine  world  exercised  an  important  influence  on 
North-eastern  Europe.  Its  most  important  corps  of  soldiery  was 
recruited  from  the  Northmen  of  Scandinavia.  The  Northmen  who 
in  the  9th  century  founded  the  state  which  grew  into  the  modern 
Russia,  were  therefore  in  more  or  less  intimate  relation  with  Con- 
stantinople, though  often  also  at  war  with  its  emperors,  and  in  the 
11th  century  they  adopted  the  Byzantine  Greek  Christianity.  After 
1453  the  Russians  regarded  themselves  as  the  heirs  of  East-Rome, 
and  have  waged  many  wars  with  the  Turks  in  consequence. 

FATHERS   OF  THE   CHURCH    IN    THE   FOURTH    AND   FIFTH 

CENTURIES. 

The  accession  of  Pope  St.  Sylvester  I.,  took  place  one  year  after  the  edict  of  Con- 
etantine  recognizing  Christianity.  His  epoch  is  also  that  of  Lactantius,  Athanasius,  and 
Eusebius  of  Caesarea. 

Lactantius  professed  rhetoric  at  Nicoraedia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  summoned  by  Con- 
stantine  to  preside  over  the  education  of  his  eldest  son.  He  has  been  called  the  Christian 
Cicero.    His  most  celebrated  work  is  that  on  the  death  of  the  Christian  persecutors. 

Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea,  was  an  indefatigable  historian,  and  rendered  an  eminent 
service  in  preserving  to  history,  by  his  "  Chronicle,"  the  precious  monuments  of  the  primitive 
Church.  His  conduct  in  the  great  question  of  Arianism  was  not  exempt  from  reproach.  The 
teaching  of  Arius,  a  priest  of  Alexandria,  tended  to  deny  the  divinity  of  Christ.  His  great 
opponent  was  St.  Athanasius.  This  heresy  was  the  cause  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  325,  from 
which  dates  the  Nicene  Creed. 

St.  Athanasius  was  made  Bishop  of  Alexandria  in  826.  For  nearly  half  a  century  he  sus- 
tained with  unshaken  fidelity,  through  all  changes  of  outward  fortune,  the  part  he  had  chosen 
of  champion  of  the  Catholic  doctrine. 

St.  Greg-ory  of  Naziansus  was  bora  316.  He  became  Bishop  of  Constantinople  in  the 
time  of  Theodosius,  and  was  renowned  for  his  eloquence.  He  closed  hie  long  career  of  saint, 
doctor,  bishop,  and  hermit  in  398.  At  Athens,  whither  St.  Gregory  had  resorted  for  study,  he 
had  met  St,  Basil,  from  that  time  his  fast  friend. 

St.  Basil,  817-379,  was  bora  at  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia,  of  which  place  he  became  Bishop. 
His  Greek  style  is  so  pure  that  Erasmire  did  not  hesitate  to  compare  it  to  that  of  the  old  Greek 
orators,  even  to  Demosthenes  himself. 

St.  Cyril,  native  and  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  belongs  to  the  same  century.    His  "  Catechet- 


N 


FATHERS    OF    THE    CHURCH 


137 


icals"  are  a  monument  of  iucBtiniablc  worth,  on  account  of  the  clearness  and  order  with  which 
the  Christian  doctrine  is  explained  and  defended. 

St.  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers  (Poy-l5-a),  was  the  brightest  ornament  of  the  Church  of 
Gaul  in  the  4th  century.    A  second  champion,  worthy  of  St.  Hilary,  was  St.  Martin  of  Tours. 

St.  Ambrose  was  made  Bishop  of  Milan  in  374.  In  consequence  of  a  tumult  at  Thessa- 
lonica,  the  Emperor  Theodosius  sent  an  order  for  a  general  massacre.  St.  Ambrose  went  to  the 
emperor,  remonstrated  with  him  on  his  barbarity,  and  prevailed  on  him  to  promise  that  the 
command  should  be  revoked.  The  mandate  was,  however,  carried  into  execution,  and  seven  hun- 
dred persons  were  slaughtered  in  oold  blood.  Shortly  afterward,  when  Theodosius  was  about  to 
enter  the  great  church  of  Milan,  Ambrose  met  him  at  the  porch  and  forbade  him  to  appear  in  the 
holyplace.  The  emperor  pleaded  the  example  of  David.  "  You  have  imitated  David  in  his  crime, 
imitate  hhn  in  his  repentance,"  was  the  reply,  and  Theodosius  was  excluded  from  the  church  for 
eight  months,  and  then  was  compelled  not  only  to  perform  penance,  but  to  sign  an  edict  that  an 
interval  of  thirty  days  should  pass  before  any  sentence  of  death  or  of  confiscation  should  be 
executed.  The  numerous  works  of  St.  Ambrose  on  the  Sacred  Scriptures  and  against  heresies, 
his  books  on  morals,  and  his  letters,  all  abound  in  a  wonderful  unction  and  sweetness  of  style. 
In  his  writings  we  find  the  first  mention  of  the  word  Mass  in  relation  to  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of 
the  altar.  The  Church  still  sings  several  hymns  of  his  composition.  Tradition  attributes  to 
St.  Ambrose  the  Te  Deum,  the  solemn  anthem  of  thanksgiving  adopted  by  the  whole  Church. 

St.  Augustine  was  born  in  the  year  354  in  the  little  city  of  TagastS,  in  the  Roman 
province  of  Numidia  (the  present  Algeria).  His  mother,  St.  Monica,  brought  him  up  in  the 
fear  of  God,  but  the  ardent  disposition  of  the  youth  led  him  into  the  path  of  pleasures,  which 
he  joined  to  an  unquenchable  thirst  for  knowledge.  At  the  age  of  twenty-eight  years  Augus- 
tine had  mastered  Ihe  whole  circle  of  human  science  then  taught,  and  gained  the  unbounded 
applause  of  all  his  masters.  He  was  then  a  celebrated  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Carthage.  He 
went  from  here  to  Italy  and  obtained  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  city  of  Milan.  Under  the 
influence  of  St.  Ambrose,  Augustine  was  converted.  He  returned  to  Africa  in  388,  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Hippo  in  395.  In  his  immortal  work,  the  "City  of  God,"  he  shows  the 
kingdom  of  truth  rising  upon  the  ruins  of 
empires,  and  displays  the  plan  of  Provi- 
dence in  the  institution  of  the  Church  and 
in  its  development  through  all  time.  St. 
Augustine  died  in  430,  as  the  flames,  kindled 
by  the  barbarian  Vandals,  devoured  his  epis- 
copal city  of  Hippo. 

St.  Jerome  was  born  about  331,  of  a 
noble  and  wealthy  family  in  the  Roman 
province  Dalmatia.  He  spent  part  of  his 
youth  in  traveling  through  Gaul  and  Asia. 
At  Rome  he  was  baptized,  then  visited 
Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  to  form  himself 
to  the  religious  life  by  the  example  of  the 
monks  and  saintly  hermits  whom  he  met 
there.  St.  Jerome  brought  to  the  service 
of  the  truth  more  learning  than  any  other 


St.  Paul's  outside  the  Walls,"  at  Rome. 
4th  Century.* 


*  Partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1832,  and  since  reconstructed. 


138  THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

fether  of  the  Latin  Church.  His  imineuse  labors  on  the  Scriptures  are  equaled  only  by  his 
incredible  mortification,  his  love  of  retreat  and  poverty,  and  his  burning  charity,  which  moved 
the  great  St.  Augustine  to  compare  him  to  St.  Paul.  His  style  is  energetic,  rich  in  figures  and 
in  lofty  and  concise  thoughts.  His  great  work  was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  known  as  the 
*'  Vulgate."    St.  Jerome  died  in  Palestine  in  420  at  the  age  of  eighty. 

St.  John  ChjTTSostom  of  Antioch  was  made  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  398,  He 
achieved  a  reputation  which  ranks  amid  the  most  illustrious  and  best  merited  of  the  Christian 
Fathers.    Tlu  foregoing  section  is  condensed  from  Abbe  Darra8\  "  History  of  the  Church^ 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

FIRST  LESSON   IN   REVIEW. 

In  what  century  was  overthrown  the  Roman  power  in  Western  Europe? 

By  whom  ?    (P.  134.) 

When  were  these  Germans  generally  Christianized  ?    (P.  134.) 

But  what  heresy  was  also  prevalent  among  them  ? 

By  what  council  was  this  heresy  condemned  ?    (P.  133.) 

Who  was  then  emperor  ? 

When  was  he  baptized  ?    Ans.  On  his  death-bed. 

But  when  did  he  officially  recognize  the  Christian  Faith  1 

What  emperor  preceded  him  ? 

When  was  the  last  Christian  persecution  ?    (P.  126.) 

By  what  emperor  was  Pagan  worship  forbidden  and  Christianity  recognized  as  state 
T«ligion  ?    (P.  134.) 

Who  were  the  sons  of  Theodosius  the  Great  ? 

When  did  they  succeed  him  ? 

Why  is  the  year  395  a.  d.  a  memorable  date  ? 

What  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  Germanic  period  in  Western  Europe,  beginning 
in  the  5th  century,  and  the  Roman  period  preceding  ?    Ans.  The  Roman  Church, 

What  great  Fathers  of  the  Church  belong  to  both  periods  ? 

What  was  the  nature  of  the  division  of  the  empire  made  by  Arcadius  and  Honorius  T 
(P.  134.) 

How  long  after  the  4th  century  lasted  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  East  ? 

By  what  name  is  it  generally  known  ? 

Why? 

What  is  the  importance  of  this  empire  for  the  West  ?    (P.  186.) 

What  influence  had  it  on  modern  learning  ? 

What  emperor  caused  the  compilation  of  the  Corpus  Juris  t 


SECOND  LESSON  IN  REVIEW. 

What  countries,  on  a  modem  map,  belonged  to  the  Byzantine  Empire  r 

When  did  its  capital  fall  ?    (P.  135.) 

How  old  was  Columbus  in  1453?    Ans.  Seventeen  years  old. 

Name  the  Important  emperors  of  the  4th  century. 


QUESTIONS    FOR     WRITTEN     EXERCISE.  139 

Of  the  3d  century  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  3rd  century? 
What  policy  preserved  the  stale  from  dissohition  at  its  close? 
Name  the  emperors  of  the  2ud  century. 
Name  the  emperors  of  the  1st  century. 
Were  these  emperors  generally  of  Roman  blood  ?    (P.  127.) 
What  do  you  mean  by  "  Roman  "  in  the  times  of  the  empire  ?    (P.  127.) 
What  countries  were  included  in  the  empire  ?    (P.  126.) 
What  languages  were  general  ?    (P.  130.) 

What  peoples  were  included  within  the  Imperial  borders  ?    (P.  129.) 
What  peoples  lay  beyond  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  ? 
In  whose  reign  did  they  begin  to  be  formidable  ?    (P.  124.) 
In  what  century  did  they  contribute  to  the  disorders  of  the  empire  ?    (P.  125.) 
In  what  century  were  many  of  them  Christianized  ?    (P.  134.) 
What  other  process  accompanied  the  religious  change  ?    (P.  134.) 
By  whom  was  the  Roman  power  of  the  West  overthrown  ? 
In  what  century  ? 

What  history  therefore  naturally  follows  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  ?    Ans.  The  history  of 
the  Germans  and  of  Gennany. 


GERMANY 

TILL  A.  D.  1500,  INCLUDING   THE   GERMANIC   STATES 
IN  WESTERN  EUROPE  BEFORE   CHARLEMAGNE. 


EARLY    HISTORY   TILL   A.  D.    410. 

Language  and  Character. — The  earliest  written  document  in  a  Ger- 
manic language  is  the  translation  of  the  Bible  by  the  Visigothic  Bishop  Ulfilas 
(p.  134).  For  our  knowledge  of  earlier  times  we  are  dependent  on  the  accounts 
of  the  Romans,  upon  the  comparison  of  languages,  and  on  a  survival  (especially 
in  Iceland)  of  the  Scandinavian  form  of  Germanic  Heathenism  to  a  later  age 
than  that  in  which  the  peoples  of  Germany  itself  became  Christians. 

The  comparison  of  languages  proves  that  all  the  great  races  of 
Europe  excepting  Finns  and  Laps,  Hungarians,  Turks,  and  Basques  belong  to 
a  common  family,  the  Aryan  (p.  31). 

The  Germanic  branch  of  this  family  included,  besides  the  tribes  of 
Germany,  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  settled  in  England  in  the  5th  century  A.  d. 
(they  came  from  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  and  the  provinces  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein) ;  also  the  Dutch,  Danes,  Swedes,  and  Norwegians.  The  three  latter 
are  also  known  as  Northmen,  or  Normans. 

Our  first  written  accounts  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Ger- 
mans are  found  in  the  Latin  historian  Tacitus  (time  of  Domitian  and  Trajan). 
He  took  pleasure  in  holding  up  the  simple  lives  of  an  uncivilized  people  as  a 
reproach  to  the  corruption  of  the  Romans.  According  to  Tacitus  the  Germans 
were  of  powerful  build,  with  blonde  hair ;  brave  in  war,  faithful  in  peace ; 
chaste  in  their  morals,  but  given  to  drunkenness.  They  practised  agriculture, 
but  without  being  thoroughly  fixed  as  to  locality  of  settlement  and  personal 
ownership  of  the  land.  They  governed  themselves  as  free  men,  but  gave 
unswerving  allegiance  to  their  chosen  military  chief.  Women  were  treated  as 
the  equals  of  men,  and  their  judgment  was  held  ip  esteem.     A  deeper  insight 


i 


EARLY    HISTORY.  141 

into  early  Germanic  nature  is  offered  by  its  Heathen  mythology,  which  was 
mystical,  fantastic,  imaginative,  gloomy,  and  contemplative. 

Cimlbri  and  Teutons. — One  hundred  and  thirteen  years  before  Christ, 
a  horde  of  barbarians  swept  over  Southern  France  and  North  Italy,  till  they 
were  exterminated  by  the  Roman  general,  Marius  (page  100).  They  were 
called  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons  ;  the  latter,  at  least,  were  doubtless  Germans. 

Fifty  years  later,  a  band  led  by  a  chieftain  named  Ariovistus,  and  prepar- 
ing to  invade  France  from  Switzerland,  was  headed  off  by  Julius  Ceesar  (p.  104). 

The  campaigns  of  Caesar  in  Gaul,  which  at  this  time  secured  that 
province  for  the  empire,  58-51  b.  c,  carried  the  Romans  to  the  Rhine  and  sub- 
jected certain  German  tribes  along  the  west  Rhine  bank.  Tiberius,  serving  as 
general  under  Augustus,  pushed  the  Roman  power  over  South  Germany  to  the 
Danube. 

Roman  Germany. — Thus  within  the  regular  limits  of  the  empire,  had 
been  included,  from  the  opening  of  the  1st  century  A.  D.,  Austria  proper — 
that  is,  German  Austria — the  Tyrol,  the  South  Danube  territory  of  modern 
Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Baden.  Beyond  the  line  of  the  Danube  where  it 
bends  to  the  south,  at  Regensburg  (Ratisbon),  the  Roman  line  continued  to  the 
Rhine  north  of  the  River  Main. 

Meantime,  from  the  Lower  Rhine,  Roman  troops,  by  various  expeditions, 
had  pushed  eastward  to  the  Elbe.  But  this  territory  was  lost  by  the  fatal  de- 
feat of  Varus  in  the  Teutoburger  Forest,  near  Lippe  Detmold,  in  Northwest 
Germany,  9  A.  D,  Augustus  cried  out,  in  despair  at  this  defeat:  "Varus, 
Varus,  give  me  back  my  legions." 

The  German  Chieftain  Hermann,  the  hero  of  the  victory,  lives  to 
this  day  in  the  memory  of  his  nation.  A  commemorative  statue  was  erected 
on  the  site  of  the  battle  a  few  years  ago.  After  this  defeat  no  further  attempt 
was  made  to  advance  the  Roman  boundaries  in  Germany  beyond  the  limits  in- 
dicated. 

In  1869  was  discovered  near  the  site  of  this  battle  a  richly  decorated  Roman  silver  table 
service,  supposed  to  have  been  lost  in  this  defeat.    It  is  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

Until  the  time  of  Conunodus,  180  a.  d.,  the  German  tribes  made  no 
serious  attempts  against  the  frontier,  although  there  were  occasional  wars  with 
individual  tribes.  During  the  time  between  Augustus  and  Commodus  the 
Roman  military  camps  served  a  most  important  purpose.  They  were  also  trad- 
ing posts  and  the  points  from  which  the  Roman  merchants  made  their  way  over 
Germany.  It  was  Roman  policy,  as  far  as  possible,  to  settle  its  soldiers  as 
farmer-colonists  at  the  different  military  posts ;  and  so  the  legions  were  agents 
in  disseminating  the  arts  of  civilization.     Many  Germans  were  enrolled  as  Ro- 


142 


GEHMANY. 


German  Soldier  in  Roman  Pay. 
(From  Reliefs  on  the  Column  of  Trajan.) 


man  soldiers.    Some  came  to  seek  service  from  beyond  the  frontier  and  returned 
to  teach  their  kinsmen  the  use  of  Roman  arms  and  Roman  discipline.     (Caesar 

had  won  his  victory  over  Pompey 
at  Pharsalia  with  his  German  Ba- 
tavian  cavalry.)  The  Rhine  and 
Danube  frontier  included,  as  we 
have  seen,  Romanized  Germanic 
provinces,  and  these  naturally  fur- 
nished large  contingents  of  German 
blood  to  the  legions. 

After  the  reign  of  Corn- 
modus  a  great  migration  of 
the  Goths  towards  Southern 
Europe  unsettled  and  dis- 
turbed the  other  German 
tribes.  These  were  crowded 
against  the  frontier,  and  lack- 
ing room,  began  to  war  upon  it.  The  3d  century  was  a  terrible 
time  of  conflict.  But  necessity  forced  Rome  to  turn  one  tribe 
against  another.  An  entire  tribe  might  thus  be  enrolled  at  once  in 
Eoman  service,  for  military  discipline  was  already  becoming  familiar 
to  the  Germans. 

In  the  time  of  Probus,  about  275  a.  d.,  the  territoiy  outside 
the  Danube  line  was  lost  (Hesse-Darmstadt,  Baden,  part  of  Wur- 
temberg).  Still,  through  the  4th  century,  the  main  frontier  was 
successfully  defended. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Valens,  376  a.  d.,  that  the  first  for- 
midable break  occurred.  Just  as  the  Goths  had  disturbed  and  unset- 
tled the  locations  of  German  tribes  in  the  3d  century,  so  in  their 
turn  the  Goths  were  now  disturbed,  but  this  time  by  an  Asiatic 
race. 

The  Huns  appeared  in  376  A.  D.  north  of  the  Black  Sea, 
crowding  the  Goths  against  the  lower  Danube.  The  Huns  (Mon- 
golians) were  disgusting  in  appearance  and  habits,  of  squat  stature, 
thorough  barbarians,  but  admirable  horsemen.    The  Goths  first 


\ 


EARLY    HISTORY.  143 

encountered  by  them  (the  Eiist-Gotbs  or  Ostrogoths)  were  forced 
into  their  army.  The  West-Goths  or  Visigoths  (Christians,  but 
professing  Arianism)  besought  permission  from  their  Roman  breth- 
ren to  cross  the  Danube.     It  was  accorded. 

About  200,000  warriors,  with  women  and  children,  entered  Ro- 
man territory.  They  were  ill  treated  by  officials  appointed  to  care 
for  them,  revolted,  and  marching  on  Adrianople,  defeated  the  Em- 
peror Valens,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle,  A.  D.  378.  His  suc- 
cessor was  the  Theodosius  the  Great,  already  known  to  us.  He 
enrolled  the  West-Goths  in  the  Roman  army  and  settled  them  as 
soldier-colonists  south  of  the  Danube. 

After  the  death  of  Theodosius,  during  a  quarrel  between 
his  sons,  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  this  army  of  Goths  was  marched 
into  Italy.  It  was  commanded  by  Alaric,  who  sacked  Rome  in 
410.     Alaric  died  in  the  following  year. 

His  people  diverted  the  river  Busento  from  its  bed,  dng  a  grave  in  it,  and  after  burial 
turned  the  stream  back  to  its  course,  that  the  tomb  might  never  be  disturbed. 

His  successor  was  his  nephew  Athaulf,  who  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Hon  on  us. 

Map  Study.— See  on  a  modern  map  of  Germany  the  various  rivers  indicated,  and  the 
territories  noted  as  Roman,  and  compare  with  the  outline  of  the  empire,  at  p.  116.  See 
modern  maps  for  Hesse  Darmstadt,  Baden,  Wurtemberg,  Adrianople. 


GERMANIC    STATES    IN    WESTERN    EUROPE. 

Honorius  gave  his  sister  Galla  Placidia  in  marriage  to  Athaulf, 
and  as  her  dowry  the  lands  of  Northeast  Spain  ( Catalonia =G()tha- 
lunia).  To  this  was  soon  added  Southwest  France  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  Spain.  Thus  was  founded,  412-415  A.  D.,  the  state  of  the 
West-Goths,  the  first  Germanic  kingdom  on  Roman  territory. 
Like  all  its  followers,  except  the  Anglo-Saxon  states  in  England, 
it  was  Christian  and  partially  Romanized. 

The  theory  on  which  the  West-  G-oth  state  was  founded  is  best  understood  by 
recallin":  the  Roman  habit  of  paying  off  soldiers  in  lands,  and  of  settling  them  as  colonists  in 
large  bodies.    It  had  long  been  customary  to  incorporate  whole  bodies  of  German  troops  into 


144 


GERMANY. 


the  Roman  annies,  and  the  West-Goths,  having  already  once  settled  in  the  Eastern  Empire, 
simply  changed  to  the  Western.  Moreover,  divisions  of  the  empire  under  separate  rulers,  for 
military  purposes,  were  customary  since  Diocletian  (pp.  126, 134).  What  distinguishes  this  par- 
ticular settlement  is  that  it  was  permanent,  and  created  a  new  state,  and  that  other  states  fol* 
lowed  it.  We  shall  understand  better  why  Honorius  fixed  the  West-Goths  as  Roman  soldiers  in 
France  and  Spain  by  recurring  to  an  event  which  happened  four  years  before  Alaric's  sack  of 
Rome. 


On  the  Christmas-night  of  406  a  horde  of  German  tribes 

had  pushed  across  the  Rhine. 
The  frontier  was  broken,  and 
its  military  guards  were  scat- 
tered. Pushed  on  by  the  swarm 
of  Huns  and  East-Goths  mov- 
ing into  Central  Europe,  Ger- 
man tribes  had,  since  that  year, 
been  pillaging  and  marauding  all 
over  France  and  Spain.     Hono- 

Tomb  of  Galla  Placidia,  at  Ravenna.  pjug  j^ade  the  West-Goths  a  home 

that  they  might  reduce  these  tribes  to  order  and  restore  security 
to  the  country. 

Among  the  tribes  which  crossed  the  Rhine  in  406  a.  d. 
were  the  (German)  Burgmidians,  who  settled  themselves  just 
after  415  A.  d.  in  the  valley  of  the  Khone  and  Soane.  Burgundy  is 
named  after  them. 

The  (G-erman)  Franks  were  another  tribe.  They  remained 
for  the  time  being  in  the  territory  of  modern  Belgium.  France  is 
named  after  them. 

The  (German)  Sueves,  who  left  their  name  in  Suabia,  had 
passed  into  Spain  before  the  West-Goths  founded  their  state,  and 
were  then  driven  by  the  Goths  up  into  the  northwest  corner  of 
that  country.  Finally  they  were  incorporated  in  the  West-Goth 
state. 

The  (German)  Vandals  had  also  passed  into  Spain.  Anda- 
lusia is  named  aftter  them.  In  A.  D.  429  they  moved  over  into 
Africa,  conquering  the  Roman  province  there.    Their  leader,  Gen- 


# 


GERMANIC    STATES,     FIFTH    CENTURY.  145 

seric,    settling  himself   at   Carthage,    began    to    harry   Sicily   and 
Italy. 

The  (German)  Angles  and  (G-erman)  Saxons,  living  in  Sles- 
wick-Holstein,  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  were 
invited  into  England,  in  449,  to  protect  the  Roman  Britons  from 
the  Picts  and  Scots  of  Scotland.  The  Roman  garrisons  had  been 
withdrawn  early  in  the  century  for  service  on  the  Continent. 

The  only  German  state  not  Christian  at  the  time  of  settlement  (or  directly 
after,  like  the  Franks),  was  this  one.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were  not  converted 
till  after  A,  D.  600,  and  meantime  exterminated  the  British  Christians,  or  drove 
them  into  Wales. 

In  451  A.  D.,  two  years  after  the  Angles  and  Saxons  first 
landed  in  England,  the  army  of  the  Huns  had  reached  France,  led 
by  Attila,  "  the  Scourge  of  God."  Attila  was  met  at  Chalons-sur- 
Marne  by  a  united  army  of  Franks,  Romans,  West-Goths,  and  Bur- 
gun  dians— Christians  fighting  against  heathen,  Romans  and  Roman- 
ized fighting  against  barbarism.  The  Huns  were  defeated.  The 
encounter  was  so  terrible  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  were  said,  in 
popular  tradition,  to  have  continued  for  three  days  fighting  above 
the  battle-field. 

This  is  ihe  subject  of  an  immense  wall-picture  by  Kaulbach  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

The  Huns  drew  off  from  France.  They  next  invaded  Italy,  A.  d.  452. 
Attila  their  leader  was  directing  his  army  against  the  walls  of  Rome,  when 
Pope  Leo  I.,  attended  by  his  prelates,  rode  out  to  meet  him  and  warned  him 
to  desist.  Tradition  relates  that  the  Pope  was  aided  by  a  supernatural  appari- 
tion. Raphael  has  so  represented  the  event  in  his  famous  wall-picture  in  the 
Vatican.  After  this  the  Huns  withdrew  from  Italy,  and  were  gradually  dis- 
persed and  lost  sight  of.  The  city  of  Venice  was  founded  in  this  year,  453,  by 
fugitives  from  Padua,  who  fled  to  the  swamps  and  lagunes  of  the  Adriatic  in 
their  dread  of  Attila. 

In  the  very  centre  of  the  Invasions  of  the  5th  century  stands  the 
pontificate  of  St.  Leo  I.  the  Great.  "The  decisions  of  the  great  Pope  were 
sought  for  by  all  the  bishops  of  the  world  at  a  time  when  the  torrent  of  inva- 
sion pouring  over  every  point  of  the  Roman  frontier  added  daily  increasing 


146 


GERMANY. 


difl&cuties  to  the  Papal  administration.  He  has  left  us  an  imperishable  monu- 
ment of  apostolic  eloquence  in  sixty-nine  discoui-ses.  To  these  labors  we  must 
add  the  great  deeds  of  his  glorious  pontificate — Rome  saved ;  once  from  the 
invasion  of  the  Hun  Attila  and  again  from  murder  and  flames  threatened  by 
the  Vandal  Genseric." 

The  Empire  loses  Italy. — Meantime  Honorius,  in  425,  had 
been  succeeded  by  Valentinian  III.  (425-455),  an  emperor  who 
makes  do  figure  in  the  events  of  the  time.  The  leaders  of  the 
Barbarian  troops  were  more  noted  than  the  emperors  of  the  West, 
whom  they  protected.  Eicimer,  one  of  these  captains,  nominated 
the  insignificant  successors  of  Valentinian.  After  Ricimer's  death 
in  472  his  post  of  commander  fell  to  Orestes,  who  made  his  own 
son,  Romulus  Augustulus,  emperor  of  the  West  in  475. 

The  German  troops,  under  their  leader  Odoacer,  now  demanded 
a  third  of  the  lands  of  Italy.  When  this  was  refused  they  slew 
Orestes,  and  Odoacer  made  himself  king  of  Italy,  476.  Romulus 
Augustulus  returned  to  private  life.  Odoacer  professed  allegiance 
to  the  Eastern  emperor,  but  was  practically  independent  of  him. 
This  date,  476,  is  generally  fixed  as  the  year  of  the  downfall  of  the 
Western  Empire. 

The  Ostro-Gothic  Empire  in  Italy.  —  Odoacer's  rule  had 

lasted  fourteen  years,  when  the 
Emperor  of  East-Rome,  Zeno, 
commissioned  the  East-Goths 
(now  separated  from  the  Huns) 
to  reconquer  Italy,  490.  They 
did  so  under  Theodoric  the 
Great,  who  ruled  Italy  wisely 
and  humanely  till  526.  The 
tomb  of  Theodoric  the  Great 
is  an  important  monument  of 

Tomb  of  Theodoric  the  Great,  at  Ravenna. 

The  East-Goths  held  Italy 
for  over  fifty  years.     They  were  expelled,  553,  by  the  generals 


GERMANIC    STATES,     SIXTH    CENTURY.         147 


of  Justinian  (p.  135),  who  also  reconquered  for  East-Rome  the 
province  of  Africa  from  the  Vandals,  534. 

The  Byzantine  generals  held  Italy  for  fifteen  years,  and  they 
were  then  expelled  by  the  (German)  Longobards. 

The  Longobards  occupied  in  568,  under  Alboin,  the  whole  of 
the  Peninsula,  excepting  the  territory  about  Eavenna,  Genoa,  the 
city  of  Rome,  and  parts  of  Southern  Italy. 

The  Iiongrobard  or  Lombard  Germans  (after  them  Lombardy  is  named)  were  thor- 
ough barbarians  when  they  conquered  Italy.  They  were  made  doubly  odious  to  the  native 
population  by  their  adherence  to  the  Arian  heresy,  which  led  them  to  persecute  the  orthodox 
Catholics.  The  Lombards  made  drinking-cups  of  the  skulls  of  their  enemies.  Alboin  had 
married  the  daughter  of  a  barbarian  chief,  whom  he  had  slain,  and  forced  her  to  drink  from 
the  skull  of  her  own  father  at  a  banquet.    In  revenge  she  procured  his  assassination. 

The  Exarchate  of  Ravenna.—The  territories  mentioned  as  not  con- 
quered by  the  Lombards  were  called  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  because  ruled 
by  an  exarch,  or  governor,  whose 
capital  was  here.  They  were  a 
portion  of  the  East-Roman  Empire 
until  the  8th  century,  when  the 
Exarchate  became  the  formal  begin- 
ning of  the  States  of  the  Church. 
The  territorial  rights  which  the 
Eastern  emperor  had  hitherto  exer- 
cised over  the  city  of  Rome  and 
other  portions  of  Italy  not  held  by 
the  Lombards,  were  lost  as  a  result 
of  the  Iconoclastic  edicts  of  the 
Eastern  emperors. 

The  Iconoclastic,  or  image- 
breaking  movement,  was  an  attempt 
by  the  Eastern  emperors  to   forbid 


Cburcb  of  San  Apollixicuo, 
Ravenna. 


century,  at 


the  use  of  images  and  pictures  in  the  churches.  This  interference  with  affairs 
of  the  Church  was  resisted  by  the  Popes,  and  led  to  the  severance  of  their 
temporal  connection  with  the  East-Roman  Empire.  The  political  power  of 
an  absolute  sovereign  was  exerted  to  such  an  extent  in  this  dispute  over  the 
bishops  ot  the  Eastern  Church,  that  the  beoinnings  were  thus  made  of  the 
Greek  Schism,  which  dates  from  Photiiis,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the 
9th  century.      Although  the  Iconoclastic  movement  was  abandoned   in   the 


148  GERMANY. 

Eastern  Empire,  the  policy  of  temporal  interference  with  the  Church  was  con- 
tinued by  its  emperors.  Thus  were  raised  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Constanti- 
nople the  unworthy  and  corrupt  political  agents,  by  whom  the  Greek  Schism 
was  inaugurated. 

The  Popes  were  thus  left  without  a  temporal  protection,  even  in  name, 
and  they  had  long  suffered  from  the  encroachments  of  the  Lombards,  who  now 
conquered  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  and  prepared  to  besiege  Rome.  In  this 
extremity  Pope  Stephen  III.  turned,  a.  d.  754,  for  protection  to  the  (German) 
Franks,  whose  rise  to  power  may  now  be  logically  described. 

Map  Study.— Visigothic  Empire,  p.  140.  Burgundian  Empire,  p.  140.  See  map  of  mod- 
em France  for  course  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone  ;  compare  the  smaller  dimensions  of  the  Duchy 
of  Burgnndy.  Suevic  Empire,  p.  140.  Suabia  is  a  name  applied  to  a  portion  of  South  Ger- 
many, parts  of  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg.  Vandal  Empire,  p.  140.  Andalusia,  modern  map, 
Anglo-Saxons  in  England,  p.  140.  Sleswick-Holstein,  modern  map.  Chalons-sur-Marue, 
Venice,  Padua;  modem  map. 

The  Italian  kingdom  of  Odoacer,  founded  in  476,  was  overthrown  by  the  Ostrogoths  before 
500.    Ostrogothic  Empire,  p.  140.    Lombard  kingdom  in  Italy  after  568. 

The  Empire  of  East  Rome  is  entered  on  map  for  Europe  about  500  A.  d.  as  the  "  Greek 
Empire."    These  terms  are  used  synonymously  with  "  Byzantine." 

See  location  of  the  Lombards  before  mvasion  of  Italy.    On  same  map,  Ravenna,  Genoa. 


RISE   OF  THE   (GERMAN)    FRANKS. 

The  Franks  permanently  crossed  the  Rhine  after  406  a.  d., 
(p.  144),  first  settling  in  Belgium.  Toward  the  lattei  part  of  the 
5th  century,  Clovis,  originally  a  petty  chief  of  the  Franks  of  Tour- 
nay,  made  himself  head  of  the  whole  tribe  (481). 

In  486,  by  the  battle  of  Soissons  (swoy-song  *),  he  overthrew 
the  Roman  power,  which  till  that  time  had  continued  to  hold  out 
in  Nor  them  France. 

The  battle  of  Tolbiac  (west  of  Cologne)  reduced  to  subjection 
the  (German)  Allemanni  in  497.  From  them  is  derived  the 
French  word  for  Germany — Allemagne. 

In  507  the  Frankish  territory  received  an  enormous  addition, 
the  whole  of  West-Gothic  France  (excepting  territory  bordering  the 

♦  The  French  nasal  "  n  "  has  been  indicated  here  by  a  final  "  g,"  as  there  is  no  other  way 
of  denoting  this  sound  in  English.  But  to  pronounce  the  "g"  is  to  pronounce  French  badly. 
Better  rely  on  the  pronunciation  as  given  by  a  French  scholar. 


RISE    OF    THE    (GERMAN)    FRANKS 


149 


Mediterranean  called  Septimania),  won  by  the  battle  of  Vougie 
(vou-lytl),  near  Poitiers. 

About  thirty  years  later  the  Burgundian  state  was  incor- 
porated in  tlie  Frankish,  and  by  the  same  time  the  rule  of  the 
Franks  had  been  pushed  eastward  over  Central 
Germany  to  the  mountains  of  Bohemia.  Besides 
this  eastern  boundary,  the  territory  was  bounded 
here  by  the  Alps  on  the  south  and  by  the  Thurin- 
gian  forest  on  the  north  (locality  of  the  later 
Saxon  duchies). 

By  A.  D.  550  the  Frankish  state  had  about 
all  the  territory  which  it  held  in  A.  d.  750.  The 
rapid  success  of  its  arms  in  France  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  Franks  were  orthodox  Cath- 
olics. The  Catholic  Gallo-Roman  native  popu- 
lation hated  its  Arian  rulers,  the  West-Goths  and 
Burgundians,  and  popular  sympathy  secured  the 
triumph  of  Clovis  and  his  successors. 


Clovis.* 


The  6th  and  7th  centuries  were  times  of  dense  ignorance  and  bloody 
crimes  among  the  Franks,  but  the  Church  was  doing  its  best  to  master  this 
unruly  material.  Interesting  indications  of  the  barbarism  of  Frankish  culture 
in  this  period  are  the  jewels.  Side  by  side,  in  the  same  gold  mounting,  are 
found  precious  antique  gems  and  bits  of  colored  glass. 

The  missionary  work  of  the  Church  with  the  German  tribes  was 
carried  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  founded  early  in  the 
6tli  century.  Its  members  were  the  disseminators  at  once  of  Christianity  and 
of  the  arts  and  knowledge  of  the  older  civilization. 

St.  Benedict  was  a  native  of  Nursia,  in  Southern  Italy.  The  monastery 
of  Monte  Cassino,  founded  in  his  lifetime,  is  still  the  famous  centre  of  his 
Order. 

Pope  St.  Gregory  the  Great  sent  his  famous  mission  to  the  Anglo 
Saxons  in  England  at  the  end  of  the  6th  century  (in  597).    For  further  accounts 
of  Church  missions  at  this  time,  see  Irish  history. 


♦  Tombetpne  formerly  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Genevieve  at  Paris. 


150  GERMANY. 

Map  Study.— See  moderu  map  for  Tournay,  Soissons,  Cologne.  The  map  at  p.  140 
shows  the  Frankish  state  after  battles  of  Soissons  and  Tolbiac,  but  before  Vongll  Merovaeus 
was  a  reputed  ancestor  of  Clovis,  and  his  dynasty  is  called  the  "Merovingian."  See  map  of 
modern  Germany  for  mountains  of  Bohemia  and  Thuringia.  Monte  Cassino  is  in  South  Italy, 
•northwest  of  Naples. 

FOUNDATION    OF  THE    FRANK   CARLOVINGiAN    DYNASTY. 

In  the  opening  of  the  8th  century  the  Mohammedan  Arabs 
had  entered  Spain  by  way  of  the  straits  of  Gibraltar.  (Gibraltar  is 
a  corruption  of  Jebel-el-Tarik-"The  Hill  of  Tarik.'')  In  the  7th 
century  they  had  already  overthrown  the  East-Roman  power  in 
Syria,  Egypt,  and  North  Africa  (see  history  of  the  Arabs  and 
Turks).  Tarik  landed  in  Spain,  711,  and  the  West-Goth  Empire 
of  Spain  was  overthrown  in  one  battle. 

Southern  France  was  soon  reached.  The  hosts  of  Islam  were 
preparing  to  annihilate  Christendom,  The  Arabs  of  Spain  were 
to  march  over  France  and  the  Arabs  of  the  East  were  to  attack 
Constantinople. 

But  Charles  Martel,  that  is,  Charles  the  Hammer,  met  the 
Spanish  Arabs  at  Poitiers  and  utterly  defeated  them,  732.  The  son 
of  Charles  Martel  was  Pepin. 

Pepin,  like  his  father,  had  been  Mayor  of  the  Palace,  that  is  to 
say.  Prime  Minister.  But  he  was  minister  of  a  king  of  a  decrepid 
dynasty,  physically  and  intellectually  unfit  to  rule,  and,  with  the 
approval  of  Pope  Zachary,  Pepin  was  made  king  of  the  Franks,  752. 

Two  years  later  Pope  Stephen  III.,  pressed  by  the  Lombards, 
turned  for  protection  to  the  heir  of  Clovis  and  the  son  of  the 
preserver  of  Christendom.  Pepin  entered  Italy,  rescued  the  Roman 
Pontiff  from  his  distress,  humbled  the  Lombards,  and  expelling  them 
from  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  gave  it  over  to  the  Pope  (p.  148). 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  States  of  the  Church, 
although  the  Popes  long  before  this  had  exercised  temporal  power 
in  Rome  and  its  vicinity.  Pepin  was  founder  of  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty.  The  son  of  Pepin  was  Charlemagne,  who  succeeded  his 
father  in  768, 


GERMANIC    STATES,    4  00-8  0  0    A.    D.  151 

GERMANIC   STATES    IN    ORDER   OF   FOUNDATION. 

Fifth  Century. 

„r       ^    ■,     .                      j-,^  ( Roman  provinces  of  South- West  France 

West-Goth  state 415 -j     ^^^  gp^in. 

Burgundian  state..  (About  the  same  )  Roman  provinces  of  S.  E.  France. 

Suevic  state ]     time.  )  Roman  province  N.  W.  Spain. 

Vandal  state 429 Roman  province  of  North  Africa. 

Anglo-Saxon  states 449 Roman  province  of  Britain. 

Prankish  state 486 Roman  province  of  North  France. 

East-Goth  state 490 Roman  province  of  Italy  and  Illyria. 

Sixth  Centuby. 
Lombard  state 568 Roman  province  of  Italy. 

This  table  shows  that  all  Germanic  states,  except  the  Lombard,  were  founded  in  the  5th 
century. 

GERMANIC   STATES   IN    ORDER   OF   OVERTHROW   OR   ABSORPTION. 

West-Goth  French  territory To  the  Franks A.  D.  507 

533 
534 
553 

568 
585 
711 

774 


Burgundian  territory To  the  Franks , 

Vandal  territory To  East-Rome 

( To  East-Rome 

East-Goth  Italy 1  To  the  Lombards. .. . 

Sueve  territory To  West-Goth  Spain, 

West-Goth  Spain To  the  Arabs  

Lombard  Italy To  the  Franks 


It  appears  from  this  table  that  the  Germanic  states,  not  conquered  by  the  Arabs  or  by  East- 
Rome,  were  all  absorbed  by  the  Franks  except  the  Anglo-Saxon  states  in  England. 

Two  Germanic  states  were  overthrown  by  East-Rome,  the  Vandals  and  East-Goths.  But 
the  East-Goth  state,  conquered  by  Justinian,  was  soon  yielded  to  the  Lombards,  except  the 
Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  which  afterward  became  Church  territory,  as  related,  and  North  Africa, 
conquered  by  East-Rome  from  the  Vandals,  was  yielded  about  a  hundred  years  later  to  the 
Arabs. 


REVIEW  OF  GERMAN    HISTORY,   400-800  A.  D. 

From  the  foreg-oing-  tables  it  appears  that  the  various  streams  of  German  history  may 
t>e  conceived  as  centering  a.  d.  800  in  the  Franks,  England  excepted.    The  confusion  of  tribes 


152  GERMANY. 

and  of  eveuts  between  Alaric  and  Charlemagne  makes  the  early  history  of  the  Germans  diffi- 
cult as  to  detail.    But  the  essential  facts  are  broad  and  simple. 

First.— Throughout  Western  Europe  the  more  or  less  effete  and  worn-out  populations  of 
the  Roman  period  (effete  especially  in  the  upper  classes,  which  naturally  were  most  agitated 
and  shaken  by  the  storm)  were  brought  in  contact  with  the  new  blood,  vigorous  natures,  and 
strong  wills  of  the  Grerman  tribes.  A  period  of  barbarism  followed  the  invasions,  but  its 
vigor  partially  made  up  for  its  lack  of  refinement. 

Second.— The  partial  overthrow  of  Roman  temporal  power  was  not  accomplished  in  defi- 
ance or  contempt  of  Roman  authority.  The  habits  of  soldier-settlement  and  territorial 
divisions  of  supreme  imperial  authority  (p.  126),  combined  with  the  continued  and  un- 
shaken power  of  the  emperors  of  the  East  (map,  p.  140),  allowed  the  greatest  changes  to  be 
made  without  a  contemptuous  overthrow  of  the  Roman  system.  Alaric,  Athaulf,  Odoacer, 
Theodoric,  Clovis — all  acknowledged  allegiance  to  the  temporal  authority  of  the  emperors, 
whose  main  seat  of  government  had  been  at  Constantinople  before  any  change  occurred,  and 
still  continued  there. 

Thtird.— Although  the  personal  efforts  and  individual  labors  of  the  Roman  missionaries 
exceed  the  power  of  words  and  almost  exceed  the  power  of  imagination,  one  cannot  but  be 
struck  by  the  willingness  of  the  German  tribes  to  adopt  Christianity,  and  by  the  rapidity  of 
their  conversion.  In  the  confusion  of  the  invasions  the  Arian  heresy  was  adopted  by  entire 
tribes,  but  this  heresy  disappeared  under  the  ascendency  of  the  Pranks. 

A  question  wMcli  cannot  be  definitely  answered  relates  to  the  proportion  of 
German  inhabitants,  numerically  speaking,  settled  over  Western  Europe  in  the  time  of  the 
German  states.  Since  it  is  a  natural  tendency  to  assume  that  a  Germanic  state  was  entirely 
peopled  by  Gtermans,  we  shall  do  well  to  note  the  following  points  : 

First.— In  Spain,  Prance,  and  Italy  the  native  population  was  neither  exterminated  nor  per- 
secuted (contrast  England),  but  it  suffered  much  in  numbers  and  in  quality  from  the  confusion 
and  disorder  of  ^he  times. 

Second.— The  proportion  of  the  lands  taken  in  possession  by  Germans  was  from  one- 
third  to  two-thirds,  but  as  this  implies  control  and  ownership  simply,  it  follows  that  a  small 
number  of  Germans  might  cover  a  large  expanse  of  territoiy.  Two  hundred  thousand  West- 
Goth  warriors,  with  women  and  children,  would  not  very  sensibly  affect  the  blood  of  the 
Prench  and  Spanish  population  which  they  ruled,  and  with  which  they  gradually  mixed  and 
intermarried.  The  Salic  Pranks  of  Belgium,  when  spread  over  Prance,  would  not  very  sensibly 
affect  the  blood  of  the  country  by  mixture  and  intermarriage. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  an  absolutely  large,  though  not  relatively  large,  element  of  German 
population  was  transferred  to  Prance,  Spain,  and  Italy.  Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  it  long  flir- 
nished  the  ruling  and  military  caste.  The  infusion  of  German  words  into  Prench,  Italian,  and 
Spanish  is  small.  This  is  significant  at  least  for  the  rapid  amalgamation  of  the  German 
element. 

Beg-inningrs  of  the  Feudal  System.— The  fidelity  of  the  Germans  to  a  chosen  mili- 
tary chief  in  the  early  times  of  the  invasions  has  been  mentioned  (p.  140).  This  chief  might 
be  head  either  of  an  entire  tribe  or  of  a  band  of  followers  only,  and  it  is  probable  that  much 
of  the  confbsion  of  tribal  names  (there  were  very  many  not  mentioned  in  this  book)  results 
from  the  habit  of  naming  each  band  of  followers  under  a  separate  chief,  without  reference  to 
blood  relationship.  In  some  cases  it  was  customary  for  the  immediate  followers  of  the  chief 
to  sacrifice  their  own  lives  at  his  death.  The  chief  shared  with  them  his  possessions,  they 
yved  on  his  bounty  and  depended  on  his  fortunes. 


THE    FEUDAL     SYSTEM.  153 

The  relation  of  personal  fidelity  between  followers  and  chieftain  was  naturally 
weakened  when,  after  settlement  in  the  newly  conquered  countries,  they  ceased  to  be 
attached  to  his  person.  They  were  separated  from  the  chief  by  the  gifts  of  land  which  he 
made  them.  They  held  these  lauds,  not  as  absolute  property  (in  theory  everything  belonged 
to  the  chief),  but  on  condition  of  military  service  as  before.  Only  being  now  locally  separated 
from  the  chief,  they  tended  to  become  locally  iudepeudeut. 

It  was  also  natural  that  the  father  should  pass  his  estate  to  the  son,  and  the  principle  of 
hereditary  inheritance  of  the  lands  loaned  by  the  chief,  in  return  for  military  service,  gradually 
became  general.  (The  Germans  call  the  feudal  system  the  "  lend  system  *'  or  "  loan  system.") 
Thus  there  was  in  the  Middle  Age  a  theory  of  absolute  dependence  of  the  followers  on  the 
chief;  of  absolute  ownership  on  the  part  of  the  chief  of  the  lands  of  the  estate.  But  the  prac- 
tice depended  on  circumstances,  on  locality,  alliances,  good  will,  strength  or  weakness. 
Above  all,  the  fact  of  hereditary  transmission  of  the  loaned  estate  involved  contradictions 
with  the  theory  of  absolute  dependence  on  the  feudal  sovereign.  This  is  why  the  Middle 
Age  is  such  a  chaos  when  we  descend  to  details. 

The  followers  became  the  barons,  the  chief  became  the  king.— The  rela- 
tions were  always  in  contention  and  always  undergoing  individual  variations  of  countless 
color  and  circumstance.  But  the  theory  of  fidelity,  which,  as  regards  kings  and  barons,  was 
often  only  a  theory,  was  carried  down  by  the  barons  to  their  dependents.  And  here  it  was 
really  a  bond  both  of  theory  and  of  fact,  because  local  association  gave  it  strength.  So  also 
the  system  of  considering  all  property  as  loaned  was  extended  to  the  dependents  of  the  baron, 
who  held  land  under  him,  and  from  these  dependents  even  to  the  serfs  of  the  soil. 

The  relations  of  the  dependents  and  serfs  to  the  barons  were  not  as  harsh  as 
may  be  imagined.  Complaints  of  the  lower  orders  against  the  feudal  system  were  not  general 
until  the  lords  were  divorced  from  their  estates  and  called  to  the  courts  of  the  kings  in  modern 
times.  Then  the  want  of  humanizing  personal  contact  between  master  and  servant  and  the 
demand  for  money  to  make  display  at  court,  changed  the  relations  to  one  of  mercenary  interest 
and  speculation.    But  the  chivalry  of  the  Middle  Age  did  not  live  to  make  money. 

There  was  no  absolutely  controlling-  royal  power  possible  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem. Disputes  between  barons  and  knights  were  settled  by  personal  conflict— the  right  of 
private  war.  This  system  of  legalized  petty  warfare  was  fatal  to  commercial  interests.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  fighting  was  not  generally  done  for  pay.  The  poor  and  lowly  were  not  in- 
volved, as  now,  in  the  quarrels  of  the  great,  and  the  risks  of  war  fell  on  those  who  waged  it. 

In  the  development  of  the  feudal  system  the  history  of  France  and  Germany 
ofEtn-s  a  remarkable  contrast.  The  great  "■  fiefs  "  or  loaned  estates  became  hereditary  in  France, 
in  the  century  of  Charlemagne  (under  Charles  the  Bald,  about  877).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
great  fiefs  did  not  become  altogether  hereditary  in  Germany  until  after  1254  (close  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  period).  But  at  this  time,  in  France,  the  po^ver  of  the  modem  monarchy  had 
already  begun  to  replace  the  isolated  independence  of  feudal  baronies.  Therefore,  the  history 
of  France  presents  a  clearer  unity  of  development  in  the  latter  Middle  Age,  while  the  history 
of  Germany  is  more  connected  and»clear  in  its  early  period. 

For  this  reason,  and  also  because  the  theory  of  the  empire  created  by  Charlemagne  con- 
tinued to  exercise  most  important  influence  on  Germany,  and  soon  failed  to  exert  any  influ- 
ence at  all  on  France,  the  history  of  Germany  after  Charlemagne  is  continued  in  this  book 
till  1500,  before  taking  up  Medieval  France, 

The  Crusades,  in  which  all  Christendom  took  part,  are  reserved  for  treatment  in  connection 
with  France,  which  took  the  largest  share  in  them. 


154 


GERMANY. 


THE   ROMAN-GERMANIC  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE. 

Charlemagne,  768-814,  was  crowned  at  Rome  in  800  a.  d.,  as 
Emperor  of  the  West,  by  Pope  St.  Leo  III.  This  revival  of  the 
Western  Empire  was  based  on  the  severance  by 
the  Popes  of  their  temporal  relations  to  the  East- 
ern Emperors  and  on  the  desertion  of  the  West 
by  these  Emperors.  It  was  based  also  on  the 
fact  that  Charlemagne  was  master  of  nearly  as 
large  an  area,  exceptmg  Africa,  as  the  Roman 
Empire  of  the  West  formerly  contained.  He  had 
conquered  Spam  to  the  Ebro,  and  he  ruled  over 
Italy  (replacing  the  Lombards).  To  the  Frankish  territory  in 
France  and  South  Germany  (p.  149)  he  added  Austria  proper  and 
all  North  Germany  to  the  Elbe. 

Map  Explanation.— A  map  of  modem  Germany  must  be  compared  with  map  for  the 
Empire  of  Charlemagne.  Beyond  the  Elbe  there  were  then  no  Germans,  becaase  their  migra- 
tions toward  the  west  had  given  place  to  Slavonic  tribes,  as 
far  as  the  Elbe,  and  in  Bohemia.  The  later  course  of  events 
pushed  back  the  Slavonic  race  in  the  north  to  its  present  bor- 
der—the western  line  of  Prussian  Poland. 

The  whole  of  North  Germany,  to  the  Elbe,  was  peopled  by 
Saxons,  and  was  then  called  Saxony.  The  name  was  afterwards 
confined  to  much  narrower  limits. 


A  Coin  of  Charle 
magne. 


The  most  important  event  of  Charlemagne's 
career  was  his  conquest  and  conversion  of  the  Saxons. 
But  his  whole  life  was  one  of  noble  toil  and  arduous 
effort. 

The  Germanic  settlement  of  Austria 
(proper)  was  made  possible  by  the  conquest  and  dis- 
persal of  the  descendants  of  the  Huns.  These  had 
been  settled  in  Hungary  and  were  called  Avars. 

Administration. — Over  his  immense  territories 
the  energetic  administration  of  the  Frankish  emperor  kept  in  force  the  uni- 
form system  of  laws  which  he  had  framed.  His  zeal  for  learning  sought  out 
and  protected  its  professors.  Among  these  the  name  of  the  English  scholar 
Alcuin  (Alquin)  is  especially  distinguished.    Embassies  from   East-Rome,  and 


Military  Costume.  Ninth 
Century.  From  Ancient 
MS.,  Paris  Library. 


THE     EMPIRE     OF    CHARLEMAGNE.  155 

from  the  Arabian  caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid,  paid  honor  to  his  greatness.  "  He 
cherished  with  the  greatest  fervor  and  devotion  the  principles  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Hence  it  was  that  he  built  the  beautiful  basilica  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
which  he  adorned  with  gold  and  silver,  and  with  rails  and  doors  of  solid 

brass When  he  discovered  that  there  were  Christians  living  in  poverty 

in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Africa,  at  Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  Carthage,  he  had 
compassion  on  their  wants  and  used  to  send  money  over  sea  to  them.  He 
cherished  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  the  Apostle  at  Rome  above  all  other  sacred 
and  holy  places,  and  heaped  its  treasury  with  a  vast  wealth  of  gold,  silver  and 
precious  stones.  He  sent  great  and  countless  gifts  to  the  Foyes."—  Eginhard's 
(contemporary)  Life  (published  in  Harper's  Half-hour  Series). 

Louis  the  Pious,  814-840,  succeeded  his  father  Charlemagne. 
But  only  the  hand  of  the  great  Emperor  himself  could  wield  the 
sceptre  of  such  a  territorial  empire  in  such  an  age.  Nor  was  it 
necessary  that  this  territorial  empire  should  continue.  The  Saxons 
had  been  brought  within  the  pale  of  Christian  civilization,  the  Mo- 
hammedans had  been  pushed  back  in  Spain,  Central  and  Western 
Europe  had  been  united  by  similar  laws ;  but  the  national  characters 
were  too  different,  the  age  too  violent,  and  the  empire  too  large  for 
permanent  rule  by  a  single  sovereign.  Charlemagne's  work  was  in 
no  sense  lost  because  his  territories  were  divided  by  the  sons  of 
Louis  the  Pious  in  the  Treaty  of  Verdun. 

By  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  843,  the  theory  of  the  common 
empire  was  retained,  and  thus  Lothair,  the  eldest  son,  was  given 
with  the  title  of  emperor  the  central  division,  as  containing  the  two 
capitals  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Rome.  This  division  comprised 
Italy  and  the  territory  corresponding  to  modern  Switzerland,  Savoy, 
Alsace,  Lorraine  (named  from  Lothair  Lotharingia,  whence  Lor- 
raine), Belgium,  and  Holland.  Above  the  border  of  Italy  this  terri- 
tory has  ever  since  been  the  debatable  ground  between  France  and 
Germany.  The  existence  of  these  two  latter  countries  as  separated 
territories  is  dated  from  843,  Charles  the  Bald  taking  France,  Louis 
the  German  retaining  Germany,  which  he  had  already  ruled  for  ten 
years  as  his  father's  deputy. 


156  GERMANY. 

liOthair  died  in  855.  After  the  death  of  a  son,  Lothair  II.,  8T0,  his  inheritance  in 
Northern  Europe  was  divided  between  his  uncles,  while  Italy  passed  to  a  younger  son  of 
Lothair  II.— Louis  II.— with  title  of  emperor.  (Treaty  of  Meersen,  a  town  on  the  Mease.) 
Louis  n.  died,  875,  without  heirs.  The  Imperial  title  was  then  held  in  succession  by 
the  two  surviving  brothers  of  the  first  Lothair— viz.,  Louis  the  German  (died  876),  and  Charles 
the  Bald  (died  877).  Louis  the  German  was  succeeded  by  sons  named  in  the  Table.  On^  of 
these,  Charles  the  Fat,  reunited  for  one  year,  888,  the  territories  of  Charlemagne,  and 
was  then  deposed  for  incompetency.  For  Italy  had  been  overrun  by  the  Saracens,  France 
by  the  Normans,  Germany  by  the  Slavonians,  and  against  these  enemies  nothing  had  been 
accomplished.  A  final  division  of  Charlemagne's  territories  was  then  made,  in  which 
France  and  Grermany  retained  mainly  the  dimensions  of  the  Treaty  of  Verdun,  but  the  portion 
of  Lothair  was  broken  up  into  subordinate  governments— Lorraine,  Upper  and  Lower  Bur- 
gundy, and  Italy— all  more  or  less  loosely  connected  with  the  Imperial  rule,  which  passed  in 
title  to  the  sovereigns  of  Germany  under  Otto  the  Great.  There  was  meantime  no  recognized 
emperor.  The  German  sovereigns  began  to  assert  the  most  important  place  in  European 
History  after  the  opening  of  the  10th  century.  The  German  line  of  Charlemagne  ended  here 
in  911,  but  continued  to  linger  in  France  till  987.  The  French  Carloviugians  descend  from 
Charles  the  Bald. 

Map  Study.— See  map  for  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne  for  Verdun  and  the  divisions  of 
its  treaty.  Compare  this  map  with  a  modem  map  of  Europe  especially  for  the  territories  of 
Lothair  named  nbove. 

CARLOVINGIAN    RULERS   OF   GERMANY. 

Pepin A.  D.  768t 

Charlemagne *'  814f 

I^ouis  tlie  Pious,  son  of  the  foregoing "  840f 

Louis  the  German,  son  of  the  foregoing •'  876f 

Karlmann,  J  (  "  880f 

Louis  the  Younger,  >•  sons  of  the  foregoing <  "  882f 

Charles  the  Fat,  deposed  )  (  "  888 

Amulf,  nephew  of  the  foregoing "  899f 

Loais  the  Child,  son  of  the  foregoing "  911f 

The  first  three  sovereigns  named  ruled  Germany  as  one  portion  of  the  entire  Prankish  state. 
A  cross  indicates  the  year  of  death. 


TENTH  CENTURY. 

Conrad  of  Franconia  was  elected  king  by  the  German  princes 
in  911,  and  was  succeeded  in  918  by  Henry  I.  the  Fowler,  the 
first  of  the  celebrated  Saxon  line. 

With  his  son,  Otto   I.  the  Great,  936-973,  the  empire  of 


TENTH    CENTURY.  157 

Charlemagne,  although  now  lacking  in  territorial  extent  the  French 
provinces,  was  otherwise  continued  and  even  increased.  Italy  was 
an  important  portion  of  it. 

Map  Explanation.— (T'or  the  following  matter  a  map  of  modem  France  should  be  com- 
pared with  that  for  Otto  the  Great.)  From  the  area  of  modem  Prance  we  must  separate  at 
this  time  the  whole  valley  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  including  the  modern  French  provinces  of 
Provence,  Dauphine.  Savoy,  Burgundy,  and  Franche-Comt6.  These  territories  of  the  old  Bur- 
gundian  state,  then  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Burgundy,  were  not  included  in  France,  and 
a  little  later  than  the  time  of  Otto  I.  (in  1032)  they  were  included  in  the  Empire.  AJsace, 
Lorraine,  Switzerland,  and  the  Netheilands,  all  belonged  to  this  Germanic  empire.  Italy  was 
also  included  in  it.  Its  sovereignty  was  acknowledged  by  Denmark,  Poland,  Bohemia,  and 
somewhat  later  by  Hungary. 

Coronation. — Otto  the  Great  was  crowned  at  Rome  by  the 
Pope,  as  Charlemagne  had  been,  and  from  his  time  the  German 
sovereigns  established  a  sort  of  prescriptive  right  to  the  Imperial 
title.  In  theory  any  magnate  or  sovereign  of  Europe  might  be 
crowned  "Emperor  of  the  West";  in  fact,  it  was  always  a  German 
sovereign  who  gained  this  distinction.  When  there  was  no  hered- 
itary heir,  the  German  sovereign  was  elected  by  the  German  princes. 
In  either  case,  after  consecration  by  the  Pope,  he  was  Emperor  of 
Christendom  in  theory,  and  of  a  large  part  of  it  in  ftict. 

There  were  three  lines  of  Grerman  emperors — the  Saxon, 
Franconian,  and  Hohenstaufen,  under  whom  this  ideal  of  the 
empire,  as  conceived  by  Charlemagne  and  restored  by  Otto  I.,  was 
upheld,  in  general  with  dignity  and  success,  until  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century. 

The  Germanic  character  of  this  '^  Holy  Roman  Empire,"  as  it  is 
called,  is  best  comprehended  by  remembering  that  Charlemagne 
himself  was  a  German  Frank,  habitually  speaking  German ;  that  he 
had  proposed  the  compilation  of  a  German  grammar,  and  had  made 
a  collection  of  the  German  folk-songs.  His  residences  of  Ingelheim 
(westof  Mayence)  and  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  were  both  on  German  soil. 
By  the  female  line,  the  Saxon  House  was  descended  from  him. 

The  succeeding  Saxon  emperors  were  Otto  II.,  Otto  III., 
and  Henry  II. 


168 


GERMANY. 


Hungary  was  occupied,  in  tlie  9th  century,  by  the  ancestors  of  the  modem 
Hungarians,  then  wandering  nomads  from  Asia.  Placo  had  been  made  for 
them  here  by  Charlemagne's  dispersal  of  the  Avars.  The  Hungarians  were  the 
scourge  of  Germany  till  the  decisive  victories  won  by  Henry  I.  near  Merseburg 

in  Saxony,  and  by  Otto  the  Great 

f''^J^.|tfji(   •■  .^"''  '  ■  j^tefetov-  on  the  Lechfeld  near  Augsburg. 

^  ?W\)B^\^rt^^^HBil  i^  They  became  converts  to  Christi- 

"^  llSivy  J^^^^^^WI  ■!  ^"'*>'  under  the  famous  Pope  Syl- 
vester II.  soon  after  1000.  This 
Pope  had  been,  under  the  name 
of  Gerbert,  the  tutor  of  Otto  III. 
The  Slavonian  Bohe- 
mians and  Poles  were  Chris- 
tianized generally  in  the  time  of 
Otto  the  Great,  and  largely  in 
consequence  of  his  exertions. 
He  spared  no  efforts  to  exalt  the 
Church  and  to  advance  the  Cath- 
olic faith.  It  was  this  sovereign, 
also,  wlio  secured  the  conversion 
of   the  Danish  king  Harold. 

From  the  Danes  Henry  I. 
had  already  conquered  and  Ger- 
manized the  province  of  Sles- 
wick. 

From  the  Slavonians 
beyond  the  Elbe  Henry  I.  took  the  Duchy  of  Brandenburg,  the  territory  about 
Berlin,  and  colonized  it  with  Germans.  All  the  Ottos  were  distinguished  by 
efforts  to  introduce  the  Byzantine  civilization  into  Germany. 

Map  Study.— For  Merseburg,  the  Lechfeld,  Brandenburg— see  map  for  Otto  the  Great. 
See  modern  map  for  Slesvvick.    Speyer,  Worms  and  Mayence  are  on  the  Rhine. 


Cathedral  of  Speyer,  begun  by  Conrad  11. 


ELEVENTH   CENTURY. 

The  last  Sazon  Emperor,  Henry  II.,  was  canonized  by  the 
Church.  The  fine  cathedral  at  Bamberg,  in  modern  Bavaria,  was 
erected  by  him.     The  great  cathedrals  of  Speyer,  Worms,  and  May- 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 


169 


Cathedral  of  Worms,  11th  Century. 


eiice,  the  finest  in  Europe  of  their  time,  also  represent  the  glories 
of  the  Germanic  eaipire  in  this  period. 

The  succeeding  line  of 
German  emperors  is  called  the 
Franconian. 

In  early  German  history  Saxony, 
meaning  the  country  of  the  Saxous,  com- 
prised all  North  Germany  as  far  as  the 
Slavonians  beyond  the  Elbe.  Franconia 
was  the  name  of  Central  Germany,  lying 
between  Saxony  on  the  north,  and  Suabia 
and  Bavaria  on  the  south.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  northeast  by  theThuringian  forest, 
on  the  southeast  by  Bavaria,  on  the  west 
by  Lotharingia  or  Lorraine. 

Under   Conrad  II.  was 

added  to  the  empire,  1032, 
the  Burgundian  kingdom, 
whose  extent  has  been  out- 
lined, p.  157. 

Under  Henry  III.,  a  powerful  and  active  sovereign,  Hungary 
also  acknowledged  the  imperial  authority.  It  was  during  this  reign 
that  the  poems  of  the  Nibelungen,  the  great  work  of  German 
medieval  literature,  began  to  take  the  shape  in  which  they  have 
been  handed  down.  They  are  based  on  the  adventures  and  myths 
of  the  times  of  the  German  invasions.  No  individual  author  is 
known. 

The  glories  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  were  at  their  height 
when  France  was  still  a  chaos  of  warring  baronies,  and  England  a 
comparatively  barbarian  country. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  1056-1106,  that  the  first 
downward  step  was  taken.  His  tutor,  when  a  young  man,  had  been 
the  monk  Hildebrand,  with  whom,  as  the  celebrated  Pope  Gregory 
Vn.,  the  emperor  came  in  conflict.  The  right  of  appointing 
bishops  was  claimed  by  the  German  sovereign  and  denied  by  the 
Pope — the  famous  struggle  about  "Investitures."    With  Henry  IV. 


160  GERMANY. 

it  was  a  question  of  power,  of  influence,  and  of  money.  With 
Gregory  VII.  it  was  a  question  of  principle.  Henry  was  excom- 
municated. Unable  to  maintain  his  influence  nnder  this  punish- 
ment, he  knelt  for  three  days  in  the  snow,  clothed  in  penitential 
garb,  before  the  gates  of  the  castle  of  Canossa,  in  the  Northern  Apen- 
nines, until  absolution  was  accorded  him,  1077.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, yield  in  good  faith,  and  his  son  Henry  Y.  also  continued  to 
antagonize  the  papal  authority  on  this  point. 

The  great  importance  attaching-  to  this  controversy  rested  on  the  danger 
which  threatened  the  Church  if  its  dignities  were  bestowed  as  political  and  temporal  prefer- 
ments, and  on  the  immense  power  and  territories  of  the  Germanic  Empire  in  which  this  usur- 
pation was  attempted. 

The  opposition  of  Imperial  authority  to  the  Papal,  under  the  two  last  Franco- 
nians,  ultimately  led  to  the  downfall  of  the  emperors.  The  results  of  the  struggle  were  imme- 
diately apparent  in  the  access  of  power  which  the  determined  attitude  of  Gregory  VII.  secured  for 
the  Church.  Under  Gregory's  immediate  successors  began  the  period  of  the  Crusades,  in 
which  the  Popes  were  politically  the  arbiters  and  directors  of  the  destinies  of  Europe. 

The  First  Crusade  was  undertaken  in  1096,  ten  years  before  the  death  of  Henry  I\". ;  but 
the  share  of  Germany  in  the  movement  was  much  less  than  that  of  France,  and  the  influeuce 
of  the  Crusades  on  after  history  is  most  apparent  in  this  latter  country.  For  this  reason  the 
Crusades  in  general  are  summarized  under  French  history. 

TWELFTH    CENTURY. 

At  the  death  of  Henry  V.  without  heirs,  in  1125,  the  Hohen- 
staufeu  family,  owning  immense  territories  in  8uabia,  had  counted 
on  securing  the  imperial  crown.  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen  had 
married  the  sister  of  Henry  V.,  but  his  ambition  was  blocked  by 
the  election  of  Lothair  of  Saxony,  with  the  assistance  and  coalition 
of  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  who  was  given  in  marriage 
Lothair's  daughter  and  heiress.  Thus  were  united  in  one  family 
the  two  large  Duchies  of  Saxony  (p.  159)  and  Bavaria. 

The  first  Hohenstaufen  emperor,  Conrad  IH.,  the  son  of 
Frederick  of  Holienstaufen,  secured  election  as  emperor  in  1137, 
and  finding  his  authority  endangered  by  so  powerful  a  vassal,  de- 
clared the  union  of  two  duchies  under  one  head  illegal,  and  outlawed 
Henry  the  Proud.  This  duke  died  a  year  later,  leaving  an  infant  son 
named  Henry  the  Lion.     The  civil  war  begun  by  Henry  the  Proud 


TWELFTH    CENTURY. 

after  outlawry,  was  continued  in  behalf  of  the  son  by  his  uncle, 

of  Bavaria.    At  the  battle  of  Weinsberg,  1140,  were  first  heard  the 

battle-cries  of  Welf  (Velf)  and  Waiblingen  (Vaiblingen). 

"After  the  battle  the  long-besieged  city  of  Weiusberg  was  obliged  to  yield.  The  emperor, 
irritated  by  its  long  resistance,  had  resolved  to  destroy  it  with  fire  and  sword.  He,  however, 
permitted  the  females  of  the  city  previously  to  retire  and  to  cany  with  them  their  dearest 
jewels.  And  behold,  when  the  day  dawned  and  the  gates  were  opened,  the  women  advanced 
in  long  rows',  and  the  married  bore  each  upon  her  back  her  husband,  and  the  others  each  their 
dearest  relative.  This  affecting  scene  so  moved  the  emperor,  that  he  not  only  spared  the  men, 
but  also  the  whole  city. '^—{Kohlrausch,  Histoiy  of  Germany.) 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. — Waiblingen  was  a  castle  of  the 
Hohenstaufens,  and  Welf  the  family  name  of  their  antagonists. 
Hence  the  designations  used  in  Italy  of  "Guelphs,"  and  "Ghibel- 
lines,"  applied  to  the  Anti-Imperial  or  Papal  and  the  Imperial 
parties  (but  finally  used  in  the  Italian  civic  quarrels  of  later  cen- 
turies when  this  sense  of  the  terms  had  utterly  disappeared). 

The  Italians  were  growing  weary  of  the  constant  pouring  of 
German  armies  into  Italy  U)  assert  the  territorial  rights  of  the  em- 
perors. Each  new  coronation  at  Rome — and  the  emperor  at  this 
time  was  always  crowned  there — was  the  signal  for  the  disorderly 
march  through  Italy  of  a  German  host.  The  towns  of  Lombardy 
which  were  most  exposed  in  locality  to  the  Imperial  exactions, 
resolved  to  assert  their  freedom,  and  the  Roman  Pontiffs  favored 
their  aspirations  for  hberty.  The  father  of  Italian  independence  of 
Germany  was  Pope  Alexander  III. 

The  revolt  of  the  Lombard  towns  took  place  under  the 
great  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa),  1152-1190,  the  second  Hohenstaufen 
emperor.  He  made  six  campaigns  in  Italy,  meeting  decisive  de- 
feat in  the  battle  of  Legnano.  Compelled  to  acknowledge  himself 
worsted,  he  knelt  to  kiss  the  foot  of  Pope  Alexander  III.  before  the 
Church  of  St.  Mark's  in  Venice.  The  stone  on  which  Barbarossa 
knelt  is  still  shown. 

Henry  the  Lion  (p.  160),  at  first  his  friend  and  ally,  then  his 
opponent,  was  therefore  deprived  of  his  possessions,  with  the  ex- 
ception in  "  Saxony  "  of  Luneburg  and  Brunswick — the  foundation 


162  GERMANY. 

of  the  later  state  of  Hanover.  Thus  Henry  the  Lion  was  the  an- 
cestor of  the  Guelphs  of  Hanover,  the  line  to  which  the  reigning 
English  sovereign  belongs. 

Barbarossa  was  an  efficient  sovereign  and  brave  knight,  but 
his  reign  marks  the  time  when  the  emperors  lost  their  power  in 
Italy.  He  died  on  the  Third  Crusade,  1190.  It  was  long  a  German 
tradition  that  their  greatest  emperor  was  not  really  dead — that  he 
was  slumbering  with  his  knights  in  a  mountain  cave,  and  that  he 
would  one  day  return  to  restore  tlie  glories  and  power  of  the  past. 

Henry  VI.,  his  son,  apparently  sustained  the  Italian  prestige  of 
the  emperors  by  marriage  with  the  Norman  heiress  of  Naples  and 
Sicily. 

Map  Study.— For  union  of  "  Saxony"  and  Bavaria  see  these  provinces  on  map  for  Otto 
the  Great.  Weiusberg,  Legnano,  Venice— same  map.  See  map  of  "  Europe  in  1713"  tor 
Brunswicli-Luneberg.  See  map  of  "Europe  during  the  18th  Century"  for  Norman  kingdom 
of  Naples  and  Sicily.    Suabia,  same  map. 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Frederick  II.,  1208-1250,  thus  inherited  the  whole  of  South 
Italy,  as  personal  territory,  beside  Suabia.  But  the  poHcy  of  antag- 
onism to  Italian  independence,  and  to  the  Popes  as  representatives 
of  this  ideal,  ended  in  the  downfall  of  the  Hohenstaufens  soon  after 
the  end  of  the  reign  which  had  witnessed  such  large  addition  to 
their  family  power.  Frederick  II.  died  in  1250.  His  son  Conrad 
IV.  died  in  1254,  leaving  an  infant  heir,  Conradin. 

Charles  of  Anjou  (Ong-jon),  brother  of  the  French  king 
Louis  IX.,  was  culled  into  Italy  by  Pope  Clement  IV.,  to  combat 
the  Hohenstaufen  regent  of  Sicily,  Manfred.  With  tlie  defeat  and 
death  of  Manfred,  1266,  and  of  the  youthful  Conradin  in  1268, 
ended  at  once  tlio  House  of  Hohenstaufen  and  the  glories  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Since  its  foundation  by  Charlemagne  in  800  it  had  lasted  450  years.  Aitliough 
shorn  of  its  greatness,  the  "  Empire  "  continued  to  exist  in  theory  till  1806,  when  it  was  abol 
ished  by  Buonaparte,  who,  however,  once  more  conceived  himself  as  heir  of  Charlemagne  in 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 


163 


his  own  title  of  emperor.  The  history  of  Germany  after  1354  is  determined  by  the  continued 
union  in  one  prince  of  two  diflferent  offices,  namely,  that  of  German  sovereign  and  of  emperor 
of  Christendom.  The' struggle  against  this  sovereign  as  an  emperor  so  weakened  his  power 
as  a  king  in  later  Mstory,  that  Germany  did  not  achieve  its  national  unity  until  the  19th 
century. 


RULERS  OF  GERMANY    FROM   911   TO    1354. 
Conrad  I.,  the  Franconian A.  D.    918f 


SAXOIT  LINE. 


Henry  I 

Otto  I.,  son  of  foregoing 

OttoH.,  "  

Ottoni,  "  

Henry  H.,  grand-nephew  of  foregoing. 


FRANCONIAN^   LINE. 


Conrad  II 

Henry  III.,  son  of  foregoing 
Henry  IV.,  " 

Henry  V.,  " 


Lothair  the  Saxon. 


HOHEKSTAUFEN   LIN^E. 

Conrad  III 

Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa),  grandson  of  foregoing 

Henry  VI.,  J 

„,  .,.       „  CI     1  .      1  sons  of  foregoing 

Philip  of  Suabia,  \  ^      ^ 

Frederick  II.,  son  of  Henry  VI 

Conrad  IV.,  sou  of  foregoing 

Otto  IV.,  rival  emperor. 

Thirteenth  Century  Continued.— Between  1254  and  1272  no  emperor  was  elected. 
Richard  of  Cornwall,  brother  of  Edward  I.  of  England,  and  a  Castilian  prince,  were  both 
suitors  for  the  title.  This  shows  that  there  was  no  legal  connection  between  German  royalty 
and  the  title  of  emperor,  which  it  so  invariably  secured. 

The  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufens  was  followed  by  an  immediate  development  in  Germany  of 
the  feudal  independence  for  which  the  great  nobles  had  so  long  been  aspiring,  and  the  history 
of  the  country  becomes  broken  and  chaotic  through  this  development  of  feudalism  at  the 
moment  when  France  was  developing  unity  and  national  power.    After  1272  the  princes  took 


"   986t 

y  i 

"   973t 

s 

"   983f 

E^^ 

"  1002t; 

"  1024t^ 

h 

"  1039t 

-2 

"  10561 

> 

"   iioet. 

3 

"    1135t 

"  113Tt 

>> 

3 

1 

"  1153t 

1 

''  1190t 

^ 
H 

"  1197t; 

''  1208t^ 

^  . 

"  1250t 

[fs 

"  1254t 

J 

II 

164 


GERMANY. 


care  to  select  an  emperor  who,  from  smallness  of  his  estates  or  other  reasons,  was  not  con. 

sidered  a  dangerous  enemy  to  their  feudal  independence.    Thus,  instead  of  a  direct  territorial 

authority  over  Italy  and  the  whole  of  Germany,  with 
some  sort  of  influence  over  Hungary,  Bohemia.  Po- 
land, and  Burgundy,  the  Imperial  office  did  not  even 
convey  a  sovereignty  over  Germany.  It  became  an 
^         TIC^K^K.  ^  M  engine  for  the  personal  aggrandizement  of  the  individ- 

ual prince,  whose  family  heirs  might  become  (and 
often  did  become)  themselves  feudal  opponents  of  an- 
other emperor. 

Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  a  man  of 

character  but  with  relatively  small  pos- 
sessions, was  thus  elected  emperor  in 
1273.  He  owned  territories  in  Swit- 
zerland adjacent  to  the  Castle  of  Haps- 
l)iirg,  with  some  possessions  in  what  is 
now  Southern  Baden  and  in  Alsace. 
Ofctocar  of  Bohemia,  also  ruler  of  Ger- 
man Austria  (Austria  proper  is  the  ter- 
ritory of  which  Vienna  is  the  immediate  capital),  contested  the 
election.  Rudolf  worsted  him,  and  confiscated  German  Austria 
for  his  own  family  possessions. 


Rudolf  of  Hapsburg. 


Map  Study.— See  Western  Europe  about  1400,  p.  200. 

Thus  the  House  of  Hapsburg  became  the  House  of  Austria,  with  possessions  including 
Carinthia,  Styria,  and  Carniola,  to  which  the  Tyrol  was  afterward  added.  But  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  the  largest  part  of  the  modern  Austrian  Empire,  were  not  acquired  till  after  1500. 
For  original  Hapsburg  territory  in  Switzerland,  Baden,  and  Alsace,  see  map  for  Europe  about 
1400.  For  addition  of  Austria,  see  the  same  map.  Carinthia,  Styria,  Carniola,  the  Tyrol ;  the 
same. 

When  Rudolf  vras  crowned  no  sceptre  was  at  hand.  He  removed  the  difflcnlty  by 
snatching  up  a  crucifix,  saying,  "  A  symbol  by  which  the  world  was  redeemed  may  well  sup- 
ply the  place  of  a  sceptre."  He  was  distinguished  by  indifference  to  personal  appearances,  and 
did  not  hesitate  to  wear  an  inferior  cloak,  and  to  repair,  with  his  own  hand,  his  doublet.  This 
was  made  a  subject  of  merriment  by  Ottocar  of  Bohemia,  who  was  compelled,  after  his  defeats, 
to  sue  for  pardon  of  the  emperor  attired  in  this  very  costume. 


•  Portrait-statue  above  the  portal  of  Strassburg  Cathedral. 


FOURTEENTH    CENTUKY.  165 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 

The  story  of  William  Tell  belongs  to  the  time  of  Albert  of  Austria, 
the  son  of  Rudolf.  The  feat  of  shooting  an  apple  from  a  child's  head  is  related, 
in  a  Danish  chronicle,  of  a  freebooter  living  some  time  before  William  Tell. 
But  it  is  quite  certain,  at  least,  that  a  revolt  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  Uri,  Schwyz, 
and  Unterwalden,  against  the  Hapsburgs,  was  caused  by  the  oppressions  of  the 
bailiff  Gessler. 

The  later  Swiss  confederation  dates  its  existence  from  this  time. 
Lucerne  soon  after  joined  the  three  cantons  named,  making  the  "  Four  Forest 
Cantons."    Before  1352,  Zurich,  Glarus.  Zug,  and  Berne  had  joined  the  league. 

In  1386  the  Hapsburgs,  endeavoring  to  recover  some  of  their  Swiss  terri- 
tory, were  defeated  at  Sempach,  mainly  by  the  heroic  self-sacrifice  of  Arnold 
von  Winkelried,  who  clasped  the  enemies'  spears  in  his  arms,  and  thus,  by 
offering  up  his  life,  opened  a  gap  in  their  ranks  for  his  comrades. 

Map  Study.— For  the  Swiss  cantons  named,  see  modern  map  of  Switzerland.  For  Sem- 
pach, see  map  of  Europe  about  1400. 

Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg  is  the  emperor  celebrated  by  the 
contemporary  Italian  poet  Dante.  Although  a  prince  of  small  pos- 
sessions, he  strove  to  live  up  to  his  title.  The  marriage  of  his  son 
John  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  heiress  of  Bohemia,  founded  the 
important  House  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia. 

Charles  IV.  of  this  line  estabhshed  the  "Golden  Bull,"  by 
which  the  right  of  choosing  the  emperor  was  legally  fixed  where 
custom  had  devolved  it — on  seven  electoral  princes.  This  mode  of 
election  was  made  necessary  by  the  tumultuary  elective  meetings  of 
earlier  times.  At  the  election  of  Lothair  the  Saxon,  for  instance, 
sixty  thousand  knights  and  barons  entitled  to  vote  had  been 
present. 

The  seven  electors  were  the  King  of  Bohemia,  the  Princes  of 
Brandenburg,  of  Saxony,  and  of  the  Palatinate,  and  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Mayence,  Treves,  and  Cologne.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
princes  was  made  independent  of  appeal  to  the  emperor.  Thus  was 
formally  established  the  territorial  independence  of  the  feudal  Ger- 
man states.     In  all  ways  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.  marks  the  recog- 


166  GERMANY. 

nition  of  the  now  purely  titular  character  of  the  Imperial  office,  his 
activity  as  a  sovereign  being  almost  entirely  confined  to  his  own 
Bohemian  kingdom.  Here  he  created,  at  Prague,  the  first  German 
university. 

Map  Study. — '*  Europe  about  1400,"  the  seven  Electorates  are  underscored.  The  Palatinate 
included  territory  on  the  Rhine,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neckar  (Heidelberg),  and  on  the  opposite 
West-Rhine  bank.  The  Upper  Palatinate  corresponds  to  the  northern  part  of  modem  Bavaria. 
Large  territories  on  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  belonged  to  the  Archbishoprics  of  Mayence,  Treves, 
and  Cologne. 

MAP  EXPLANATION. 

Dauphine.— Charles  FV.  abandoned,  in  1347,  the  Imperial  rights  of  supremacy  over  Sbuth- 
eastem  France— the  "  Burgundy"  of  map  for  Europe  during  the  12th  century.  These  rights 
were  granted  to  the  French  crovi'n-prince  John,  who  had  inherited  at  this  time  the  over-lord- 
ship of  Dauphin6,  and  thus  united  it  with  the  French  crown.  The  title  of  "Dauphin,"  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  the  "  Prince  of  Wales,"  and  given  to  the  oldest  son  of  the  King  of  France, 
was  derived  from  the  acquisition  of  this  province.    Compare  map  for  Europe  about  1400. 

Luxemburgr-Bohemia.— See  map  for  Europe  about  1400  for  Luxemburg  (colored  blue, 
the  territory  above  Lorraine).  With  the  Bohemian  territories  are  included  Silesia  and  Bran- 
denburg. 

Union  of  Hungary  with  Luxemburg-Bohemia.— Sigismund,  son  of  Charles  IV., 
married  Maria,  heiress  of  Hungary,  and  was  crowned  king  in  1387.  Hence  the  union  of  Hun- 
gary and  Bohemia  (so  important  for  later  history  of  Austria).  Shakespeare  has  been  derided  by 
English  critics  for  ignorance  of  history  in  providing  "  Bohemia  "  with  sea-ports— observe  the 
map. 

FIFTEENTH    CENTURY. 

As  emperor  after  1410,  Sigismund  conferred  on  the  House 
of  Hohenzolleru  the  territory  of  Brandenburg,  where  this  family  was 
established  in  1417.  The  original  home  of  the  Hohenzollerns  was 
a  small  territory,  still  owned  by  them,  in  the  southwest  corner  of 
Wurtemberg.  The  family  gained  the  title  of  Counts  of  Nurnberg 
under  Henry  VI.,  with  possession  of  the  neighboring  territories  of 
Anspach  and  Baireuth,  in  modern  Bavaria.  With  tlie  acquisition  of 
Brandenburg  (capital  Berhn)  begins  the  rise  of  the  modem  kingdom 
of  Prussia,  still  ruled  by  the  Hohenzollerns.  Their  territory  of 
Brandenburg  has  always  remained  the  central  province  and  heart 
of  this  kingdom.  The  name  "Prussia"  is  derived  fi*om  an  out- 
lying province  acquired  at  a  later  date. 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY, 


167 


Map  Study.— For  Hohenzollern  see  map  for  "  Europe  about  1400.'"     For  territories  of 


Anspach  and  Baireutii,  see  map  for  "Europe  in  1550. 
parte  and  Prussia  was  occasioned  by  his  marching 
through  Anspach  and  Baireuth,  instead  of  stopping 
to  go  around  them,  when  on  his  way  to  the  victory 
of  Austerlitz.)  For  Hohenzolleras  in  Brandenburg, 
6ee  map  for  1550.    Compare  with  map  for  1400. 

After  Sigismund,  the  Imperial 
title  reverted  to  the  Hapsburgs. 
The  reign  of  Frederick  III.  lasted 
nearly  half  a  century.  His  own 
Austrian  dominions  were  small,  his 
character  and  life  quite  narrow,  and 
the  exercise  of  the  sovereign  rights 
over  Germany,  implied  in  his  title, 
were  almost  absolutely  in  abeyance. 
But    this    emperor    was   father  of  a 


(The  war  of  1806  between  Bona- 


Maximilian  I. 
(From  an  old  Wood-cut.) 


German  Knight  of  Maxi- 
milian's Time. 
(From  an  old  Wood-cut.) 

period  of  Charles  V. 
belongs  to  the  16th  century. 


famous  son,  who  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  the 
pretensions  and  also  to  the  power  of  the 
emperors. 

This  son  was  Maximilian  I.,  a  knightly 
and  energetic  character.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1493. 

His  grandson  and  successor,  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.,  is  the  most  important  sov- 
ereign— in  character,  possessions,  and  influence — 
of  the  16th  century.  But  the  dimensions  and 
history  of  his  empire  presuppose  a  knowledge  of 
Italy,  of  France,  and  of  Spain,  as  well  as  of  Ger- 
many. For  this  reason  the  history  of  each  of 
these  other  countries  is  carried  down  to  the  year 
1500,  before  entering  on  the  16th  century  and  the 
The  most  important  part  of  Maximilian's  reign  also 


168 


GERMANY 


RULERS  OF  GERMANY  FROM  1273  TO  1500. 

Rudolf  of  Hapsburg a.  d 

Adolf  of  Nassau " 

Albert  of  Austria,  a  Hapsburg  and  son  of  Rudolf " 

Henry  VII.,  of  Luxemburg " 

Frederick  of  Austria ;  a  Hapsburg,  son  of  Albert " 

Rival  Emperor,  Louis  of  Bavaria " 

Charles  IV.  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia " 

Wenceslaus,  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia,  his  son,  deposed " 

Rupert  of  the"  Palatinate " 

Sigismund  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia,  son  of  Charles  IV " 

Albert  II.,  of  Austria,  a  Hapsburg " 

Frederick  III.,  of  Austria,  a  Hapsburg " 

Maximilian,  son  of  foregoing ** 


.isgitlll" 

1398t  '^o 
1308t  1 
1313t  U  . 

1330t  Is' 
1347t  II 
1378t^'" 


1400 
141  Of 
1437t 
1439t 
1493t 
15191 J 


ADDITIONAL   FEATURES  OF   GERMAN     MEDIEVAL    HISTORY. 


Teutonic  Knigrhts  and 
first  settlement  of  Prussia. 
— This  province,  which,  united 
at  a  later  date  with  the  territory 
of  Brandenburg,  transferred  its 
name  to  the  whole  territory 
of  the  Hohenzollems,  lies  in  the 
extreme  noriheaetem  comer  of 
modern  Germany,  on  the  Vistula 
and  its  tributaries.  (Map  for 
''Europe  about  1400.")  It  was 
inhabited  until  the  13th  century 
exclusively  by  barbarian  Slavo- 
nians. 

Pope  Innocent  III.  created  the 
first  bishop  of  Prussia  soon  after 
1200.  He  was  supported  and  assist- 
ed by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  a  cru- 
sading order  headed  by  Hermanu 
von  Salza,  who  colonized  and  Ger- 
manized the  province. 

The  Mongrols.— In  i  he  reign 
of  Frederick  II.  the  Mongols,  hav- 
ing conquered  under  Dschingis 
(Gingis)  Khan  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia,  invaded  Europe.    They  defeated  a  German  army 


Interior. 


MEDIEVAL    HISTORY. 


169 


in  1311  at  Liegnitz  (Leegnitz)  in  Silesia,  but  retired  before  a  continued  show  of  firm  resistance. 
They  continued  to  occupy  Russia,  as  related  under  this  heading. 

The  Hansa.— After  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  the  most  important  power  of  North 
Germany  was  the  league  of  the  Hansa  towns,  which  controlled  the  commerce  of  Northern 
Europe,  and  even  waged  successful  war  as  an  independent  power  on  Denmark.  Among  the 
most  important  cities  of  this  league  were  Llibeck,  Wismar  (Vismar),  Rostock,  Stralsund,  Bre- 
men, Hamburg,  Cologne,  Dant- 
zic,  Koenigsberg,  Wisby,  Riga, 
Reval  and  Dorpat. 

The  Cathedrals.  —  We 
are  not  to  suppose,  from  the 
chronicles  of  the  Imperial  title 
and  the  weakness  of  German 
sovereigns  in  the  later  Middle 
Age,  that  the  period  after  the 
Hohenstaufens  was  insignifi- 
cant in  Germany.  It  is  the 
time  of  the  rise  and  greatness 
of  the  Free  Cities.  They  have 
written  their  own  history,  here 
and  all  over  Europe,  on  the 
Gothic  cathedrals,  which  be- 
long to  this  period  and  repre- 
sent its  greatness.  The  Gothic 
Style,  borrowed  from  France, 
developed  in  Germany  after 
the  middle  of  the  13th  century 
and  lasted  till  after  1500. 

The  earlyChristian  churches 
borrowed  the  forms,  which  de- 
veloped into  the  later  Cathedrals 
the  Roman  Baptisteries  or  Bath 


Cologne  Cathedral,  begun  1248.    View  of  the  Choir, 


from  the  Roman  Basilica  (Business  Exchange)  and  from 
Basilica  types  are  represented  at  pp.  123, 137, 147.  The 
Baptistery  was  a  dome  structure ;  types  at  pp.  114, 135. 

After  1000  the  Romanesque  Style ;  types  at  pp.  158,  159 ;  developed  by  combining  the 
dome  with  the  basilica  form  of  the  cross.  The  dome  was  placed  over  the  junction  of  nave 
and  transept,  and  the  buildings  were  vaulted  over  with  arched  ceilings  of  brick  or  stone. 

The  Gothic  developed  from  the  Romanesque  by  increasing  all  dimensions  and  especially 
the  height.  The  pointed  or  Gothic  arch  was  first  introduced  to  attain  greater  stability  of  the 
heavy  ceilings  at  such  immense  altitudes.  Combined  with  these  immense  dimensions  was  a 
lightness  of  construction  which  required  the  support  of  the  exterior  Gothic  buttress;  types  at 
pp.  168,  169, 189,  and  in  many  later  illustrations. 


170  GERMANY. 

CHRONOLOGY    OF    GERMAN     MEDIEVAL    HISTORY. 

4th  Century.— Christianity  begins  to  spread  among  the  Gennan  tribes. 


5th  Century, — German  Invasions. 

Overthrow  of  the  West-Roman  Empire  in  476. 


6th  Century.— Spread  of  the  Franks  and  Lombards  in  France  and  Italy. 


7th  Century. — Anglo-Saxons  christianized. 


8th  Century.— Poitiers,  732. 

Mayors  of  the  Palace  overshadow  the  Merovingian  kings, 
and  found  the  Carlovingian  line  under  Pepin,  752. 


0th  Century.— The  Empire  of  Charlemagne. 
Treaty  of  Verdun,  843. 

10th  Century.— Saxon  Emperors  after  918. 

Otto  the  Great  revives  the  Imperial  ideal  of  Charlemagne. 


11th  Century. —Franconian  Emperors  after  1024. 

Contest  of  Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VII.  about  Investitures. 


12th  Century.— Hohenstauf ens  after  1137. 

Iiombard  towns  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the  German  Emperors. 
The  Hohenstaufen  Henry  VI.,  acquires  Naples  and  Sicily. 

13th  Century. — Fall  of  the  Hohenstaufens  and  decline  of  the  "Empire." 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg. 

14th  Century. — The  House  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia  founded. 
Southeastern  France  abandoned,  1347. 
The  Golden  Bull,  1366. 

16th  Century. — The  Hohenzollems  established  in  Brandenburg,  1417. 

Imperial  title  continues  in  the  Hapsburg  line  after  1439. 


QUESTIONS    FUR     WRITTEN     EXERCISE.  171 


QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  GERMAN  HISTORY  BEFORE  1500. 

FIRST   REVIEW   LESSOi^. 

What  people  reached  into  Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe  in  the  early  Middle  Age  ?  (P.  154.) 
Why? 

Who  occupied  Hungary  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne  ?    (P.  154.) 

Who  subdued  the  Avars  ? 

Who  made  possible  the  German  settlement  of  Austria  proper  ? 

What  important  possessions  of  modern  Austria  did  not  belong  to  this  State  before  1500  ?— 
Aug.,  Bohemia  and  Hungary. 

What  were  the  relations  of  Bohemia,  Poland  and  Hungary  to  the  Empire  in  the  time  of  the 
Saxon  emperors?    (P.  157.) 

What  emperor  begins  the  line  of  Hapsburg  in  Austria  proper  ?    (P.  164.) 

What  provinces  were  included  with  this  duchy  ?    (P.  154.) 

With  what  duchy  was  Bohemia  united  in  the  14th  century  ?    (P.  165.) 

What  part  of  the  possessions  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia,  passed  to  the  House  of  Hohenzol- 
lern  ?    (p.  166).    When  ? 

What  century  saw  the  HohenzoUems  established  in  North  Germany? 

What  century  saw  the  Hapsburgs  established   in  Austria? 

When  was  the  Province  of  Prussia  Germanized  ?    (P.  168.) 


SECOND  REVIEW   LESSON. 

Why  did  the  German  princes  favor  the  election  of  weak  sovereigns  after  1272  ?    (P.  164.) 

Who  formally  established  the  later  electoral  method?    (P.  165.) 

Where  were  the  great  possessions  of  the  Hohenstaufens  ?    (P.  160.) 

When  did  their  power  end  ? 

What  Hohenstauf  en  was  monarch  of  Naples  and  Sicily  ? 

How  did  he  inherit  Naples  and  Sicily  ? 

Who  was  called  into  Italy  to  combat  the  heirs  of  Frederick  n.  ? 

In  whose  reign  did  the  emperors  lose  in  the  main  their  territorial  powers  over  Italy? 
(P.  162.) 

By  whose  reign  was  the  system  of  a  weak  sovereignty  in  Germany  established  ?    (P.  164.) 

How  did  the  reigning  prince  recompense  himself  tgr  the  weakness  of  sovereign  power  ? 
(P.  164.) 

What  House  held  the  Imperial  title  after  Frederick  III.  till  1806  ?  Ans.  The  Hapsburgs. 
(After  1740  the  Hapsburg  blood  passed  by  the  female  line  through  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa, 
who  married  a  Duke  of  Lorraine.  But  it  is  still  usual  to  speak  of  the  present  Austrian  line 
as  that  of  the  Hapsburgs.) 

Was  there  any  necessary  connection  between  the  Imperial  title  and  the  House  of  Austria  ? 
Ans.  No. 

Was  there  any  necessary  connection  between  the  Imperial  title  and  the  Sovereignty  of 
Germany  ?    ^P.  157.) 

What  did  the  title  mean  ?    (P.  157.) 

With  whom  did  it  originate  ?    (P.  154.) 


172  GERMANY. 

THIRD    REVIEW   LESSON^. 

What  territories  did  Charlemagne  rule? 
Which  did  he  conquer?    (P.  154.) 
Which  did  he  inherit  ?    (Pp.  148,  149.) 
Who  was  the  father  of  Charlemagne? 
Who  made  Charlemagne  emperor  ?    When  ? 
On  what  basis  or  theory? 

How  long  had  the  Western  Empire  been  in  abeyance  ?    (P.  146.) 
What  assistance  was  rendered  the  Pope  by  Pepin  ?    (P.  150.) 

Whose  duty  was  it  to  protect  the  Pope  from  the  Lombards  ?   Ans.  The  duty  of  the  Emperor 
of  East-Rome. 

What  was  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  ?    (P.  147.) 

To  what  empire  did  it  belong  ? 

How  did  the  schism  of  the  Greek  Church  begin  ?    (P.  147.)    When  ? 

What  were  the  resulting  relations  of  the  Popes  to  the  Eastern  Empire  ?    (P.  148.) 

When  did  the  Lombards  settle  in  Italy  ?    (P.  147.) 

Whose  power  did  they  replace  ? 

What  German  power  was  overthrown  in  Italy  by  Justinian's  generals  ?    (P.  146.) 

How  long  did  East-Rome  hold  all  Italy  J    (P.  147.) 

How  long  did  it  hold  the  Exarchate  ?    Ans.  Until  shortly  before  754.    (P.  148.) 

Who  drove  the  Lombards  out  of  the  Exarchate  ?    (P.  148.) 

Who  subdued  the  Lombards  throughout  Italy  ?    (P.  154.) 

When  did  the  East-Goths  enter  Italy  ? 

Whose  rule  did  they  replace  ? 

Who  became  ruler  of  Italy  in  476  ?    (P.  146.) 

How  long  after  the  death  of  Theodosius  the  Great  ?    (P.  134.) 

How  long  after  Rome  was  sacked  by  Alaric  ?    (P.  143.) 


FOURTH   REVIEW   LESSON. 

Who  was  Alaric's  successor ?    (P.  143) 

Who  founded  the  Visigothic  State  ?  (P.  143.)  Afi.^.  After  Athaulf  had  led  the  Visigoths  to 
the  settlements  assigned  by  Honorius,  and  had  married  Galla  Placidia,  he  was  assassinated  in 
415.    He  was  succeeded  by  Wallia,  who  is  generally  called  the  founder  of  the  Visigothic  state. 

Who  overthrew  Visigothic  power  in^ France  ?    (P.  148.) 

Who  overthrew  it  in  Spain  ?    (P.  150.) 

When  did  the  Pranks  cross  the  Rhine  ?    (P.  144.) 

With  what  companions  ? 

What  Germanic  state  was  founded  in  North  Africa  ?    (  P.  144.) 

When  established?    (P.  144.)    When  overthrown ?    (P.  147.) 

What  replaced  it  ?    (P.  147.) 

Who  overthrew  the  East-Roman  power  in  North  AfHca  ?     (P.  160.) 

Who  prevented  the  Mohammedans  from  conquering  Prance  ?    (P.  150.)    When  ? 

Who  was  the  father  of  Pepin  ?    (P.  150.) 

When  did  Clovis  begin  his  reign  f 

Give  the  successive  additions  to  th^  Prankish  state  before  650.    (Pp.  148, 1^.) 


QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN     EXERCISE. 


173 


FIFTH   EEVIEW  LESSON". 

How  long  before  later  additions  were  made  ?    (P.  154.) 

What  additions  were  made  by  Charlemagne  ? 

When  was  Charlemagne's  empire  divided  ? 

From  what  time  date  the  beginnings  of  modern  France  and  Germany  ?    (P.  166.) 

What  territorial  power  had  Lothair  in  843  ? 

What  territorial  power  had  the  Saxon  emperors  ?    (P.  157.) 

When  was  Italy  practically  lost  to  the  emperors  ?    (P.  161.) 

When  was  Germany  lost  to  the  emperors  as  a  united  state  ?    (P.  164.) 

When  was  Germany  the  strongest  state  in  Europe  ?  Ans.  In  the  10th,  11th,  and  12th  centuries. 

What  history  unites  the  Roman  Empire  with  later  periods  ?  Am.  The  preceding  Germanic 
history  of  all  Western  Europe  from  the  5th  to  the  10th  century. 

How  long  a  time  between  Alaric  and  Charlemagne  ?  And  between  Charlemagne  and  Bar- 
barossa  ?  Between  Barbarossa  and  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  ?  Between  Frederick  U.  and 
Frederick  HI.  ? 

Who  was  the  successor  of  Frederick  III.  ? 

Who  was  the  successor  of  Maximilian  I.  ?    (P.  167.) 

What  different  countries  are  involved  in  a  knowledge  of  the  period  of  Charles  the  Fifth  ? 
(P.  167.) 


GENEALOGY   CONNECTING   THE  GERMAN    AND    FRENCH    CARLOVINGIANS. 

FOR  REFERENCE  IN  USING  TABLES  AT  PAGES  156  AND  178. 


Charlemagne. 

1814. 

Louis  the  Pious. 
t840. 
I   


Lothair. 

t855. 


Louis  the  German. 

t876. 


tht 


Charles  the  Bald. 
t877. 


Lothair  II. 
t870. 


Louis  II. 

t875. 


Karlmann. 
t880. 
I       . 
Amulf. 


the 


Louis  the  Younger.    Charles  the  Far. 
t883.  Deposed,  888. 


Louis  the  Child. 

t911. 

(Extinct.) 


Louis  II. 

+879. 
I 


Louis  TIL 


Karlmann. 
t884. 


I 

Charles  the  Simple 

+929. 

I 

Louis  IV. 

+954. 

I 

Lothair. 


Louis  V. 

+987. 
(Extinct.) 


FRANCE, 

TILL  A.  D.  1500. 


FRANCE  IN    ITS  CELTIC,    ROMAN,    AND    GERMAN    PERIODS. 

Celtic  Period. — There  is  a  marked  distinction  of  character  between  the 
Germanic  peoples  and  those  of  the  Celtic  race,  to  which  the  French,  Irish, 
Welsh  (Ancient  Britons),  and  Highland  Scotch,  belong.  In  opposition  to  the 
sometimes  melancholy,  generally  contemplative  and  mystic,  German  nature, 
the  spirit  of  the  Celtic  race  was,  and  is,  distinguished  by  light-hearted  gaiety, 
by  the  cultivation  of  social  graces,  and  by  a  more  impulsive  and  spirited 
temper.  The  mind  of  the  German  is  deep  and  profound,  the  mind  of  the 
Frenchman  is  logical  and  clear.  A  pecaliarly  valuable  trait  of  the  Celtic  race 
is  the  nobility  and  chivalry  of  spirit  which  softens  by  mutual  politeness  the 
contrasts  of  rank,  and  bridges  over  by  social  tact  the  inequalities  of  condition. 
Notwithstanding  this  difference  of  traits,  the  Celts  are  a  branch  of  the  one 
original  Aryan  family  from  Asia,  which  also  peopled  Europe  with  Germans  and 
Slavonians,  Greeks  and  Italians  (p.  31). 

In  common  with  these  other  peoples,  the  French  Celts,  as  settled  in 
Europe  before  the  time  of  written  record,  already  possessed  a  moral  and  social 
family  organism,  were  acquainted  with  husbandry,  and  could  by  no  means  be  con- 
sidered a  barbarous  nation.  It  was  also  the  good  fortune  of  the  French  Celts, 
unlike  the  Germans,  to  have  begun  their  intercourse  with  Southern  Europe  at  a 
time  when  its  ancient  civilization  was  still  vigorous.  An  important  influence 
on  French  civilization  was  exercised  by  the  Greek  settlement  of  Marseilles,  about 
600  B.  c.  At  a  much  earlier  date  Phoenician  commerce  had  brought  from  Syria 
and  from  Carthage  the  luxuries  and  some  of  the  knowledge  of  the  East.  The 
famous  monuments  found  in  Celtic  countries — immense  blocks  of  stone,  erect, 
like  those  at  Stonehenge  in  England,  and  forming  temple  inclosures,  or  sup- 


CELTIC     AND    ROMAN    5^  R  A  N  C  E  . 


1% 


Dolmen  near  Poitiers,  13  feet  long,  3  feet  thick. 


ported  on  other  large  stones  as  monumental  tombs,  called  "  cromleachs  "  or  "  dol- 
mens," argue  a  meclianical  science  well  known  to  the  Phoenicians,  and  probably 
acquired  from  them.     The  caste  of 
the  Celtic  priests  called  Druids  is 
thought  to  have  derived  its  teacli 
ing  from  Phoenician  religion. 

Besides  the  early  influence 
of  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  on 
Gaul  (the  ancient  name  of  France, 
but  including  all  territory  west  of 
the  Rhine),  we. must  notice  the  long 
establishment  of  the  Gauls  in  Italy 
— Cisalpine  Gaul.  They  controlled 
the  fertile  plains  of  North  Italy  for 
centuries.     Gallic    Italy    was    not 

definitely  conquered  by  Rome  till  after  the  Punic  Wars.  As  mercenary  soldiers, 
the  Gauls  had  invaded  Southern  Italy  on  many  occasions,  notably  in  390  b.  c. 
(p.  81),  and  they  invaded  Greece  in  290  B.  c.  This  last  invading  force,  after 
leaving  Greece  traversed  Macedonia  and  Thrace  to  the  Black  Sea,  sailed  across 
it,  and  settled  Galatia  in  Asia  Minor. 

Map  Study.— The  arrangement  of  reference  follows  the  order  of  the  book. 
Marseilles  (Map.«illa),  p.  92.    Cisalpine  Gaul  (Gallia  Cisalpina),  p.  86  and  p.  92.    Galatia, 
p.  58  and  p.  94. 

The  Roman  Period. — In  recalling  the  rapid  conquest  of  Gaul  by  Roman 
civilization  after  the  campaiorns  of  Julius  Caesar,  we  must  remember  that  its 
southern  coast  country — Gallia  Narbonensis — had  then  been  already  Roman 
for  three-quarters  of  a  century. 

From  the  earlier  Celtic  period  we  pass  then  to  the  Roman  period,  which 
lasted  from  58  b.  c.  until  the  states  of  the  West-Goths,  Burgundians,  and 
Franks  (after  which  latter  tribe  France  is  named) — a  period  of  five  hundred 
years.  For  our  knowledge  of  this  time,  the  sections  devoted  to  the  Roman 
Empire  and  its  civilization  must  be  consulted.  In  common  with  other  provinces 
of  the  empire,  Gaul  underwent  the  moral  transformation  which  the  spread  of 
Christianity  carried  with  it.  The  large  number  of  converts  already  existing 
there  in  the  2d  century  is  notorious. 


Map  Study.— Gallia  Narbonensis,  p.  92.    See  on  a  modem  map  Narbonne. 
Ganl,  p.  116. 


Roman 


The  Frankish  period  of  history,  which  begins  with  the  German  inva- 


176 


FRANCE. 


sions  of  the  5th  century  (Clovis,  481-514),  has  been  already  summarized  in 
relating  the  history  of  the  early  Germanic  states.  It  lasted  live  hundred  years. 
A  reputed  ancestor  of  the  German  Frank  Clovis  was  named  Merovaeus — hence 


Itoinan  Temple  at  NJH<mes,  called  the  "Maison  Carree." 


his  dynasty  is  called  the  Merovingian.  In  emphasizing  the  Germanic  nature 
and  origin  of  Frankish  history,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  process  of  Roman- 
izing the  Franks  and  other  Germans  in  France,  of  transforming  them  from  bar 
barian  converts  to  intellectual  and  spiritual  subjects  of  Rome,  was  largely  the 
work  and  mission  of  the  native  Gallo-Roman  population.  (See  also  the  share 
of  the  Irish  missionaries  in  this  work  under  Irish  history.)  The  absence  of 
animosity  of  race,  of  the  spirit  of  extermination,  in  the  German  invasions,  has 
been  noticed  already,  and  it  helps  to  explain  the  assimilation  of  the  conquerors 
by  the  conquered.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Merovingian  period  was  one  of 
ignorance  and  violence,  for  the  native  population  as  well  as  for  the  Franks. 
While  one  part  rose  higher  the  other  fell  lower,  till  the  general  level  was  be- 
tween the  earlier  condition  of  either.  The  decline  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty 
brought  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace  to  the  throne,  with  Pepin,  752  (p.  150). 


GERMANIC    FRANCE.  1^7 

Map  Study. — Merovingian  France,  p.  140.  But  remember  that  this  map  shows  the 
extent  about  500  A.  d.  ;  therefore  notice  the  additions  made  in  507  and  before  550,  described  at 
pp.  148, 149.  To  appreciate  the  final  extent  of  Prankish  Merovingian  rule,  subtract  from  the 
territory  of  Charlemagne,  at  p.  154,  North  Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  and  Northeast  Spain. 

The  Prank  Carlovingian  period,  of  French  history  includes  Germany 
and  Italy.  The  quarrels  of  the  Pons  of  Louis  the  Pious  show,  however,  a  tend- 
ency to  national  separation,  which  distinctly  begins  after  the  Treaty  of  Verdun, 
843.  This  is  tho  period  from  which  the  liistory  of  France  as  a  separate  country 
must  begin. 

Although  the  Frankish  Carlovingian  line  continued  to  linger  till  987,  its 
later  kings  had  no  influence  and  made  no  mark.  Their  names  are  included  in 
the  dynastic  lists  mainly  because  to  omit  them  would  be  to  create  confusion  as 
to  the  order  of  number  of  the  French  sovereigns  in  later  times.  Without  ref- 
erence, then,  to  the  titular  sovereigns  after  843,  the  9th  century  in  France  has 
three  important  features — the  dissolution  of  the  territorial  empire  of  Charle- 
magne, the  absolute  triumph  of  the  feudal  system  over  the  monarchy,  and  the 
distress  and  disorder  occasioned  by  the  forays  of  the  Northmen.  England  and 
Ireland  at  the  same  time  suffered  in  the  same  way.  Germany  was  being  devas- 
tated by  the  Hungarians,  and  the  coasts  of  Italy  were  ravaged  by  the  Moham-  • 
medan  Arabs.     The  9th  century  is  the  darkest  of  European  history. 

The  lyTorthmen  of  Denmark  and  Scandinavia  were  the  last  to  trouble 
Europe  by  pagan  cruelty  and  violence.  In  contrast  with  the  earlier  Germanic  In- 
vasions their  ravages  were  made  by  sea,  and  being  more  desultory  were  far  more 
destructive.  Every  navigable  river  was  entered  by  their  boats,  and  from  the 
farthest  limit  which  could  be  reached  by  water  they  struck  inland  on  plunder- 
ing excursions,  to  burn  and  destroy  what  they  could  not  remove.  The  animosity 
of  these  northern  pagans  had  been  especially  aroused  by  (Charlemagne's  con- 
quests of  their  kindred  in  Saxony,  and  a  sentiment  of  revenge  inspired  their 
terrible  raids.  The  Northmen  ravages  in  France  continued  from  the  close  of 
Charlemagne's  reign  in  814  for  an  entire  century,  till  911.  The  necessity  of 
combating  with  them  at  every  point  and  the  incapacity  of  the  later  Carlovin 
gian  rulers  transferred  all  duties  of  defence  and  powers  of  government  to  the 
local  fiefs.  The  great  fiefs  were  made  hereditary  by  Charles  the  Bald 
in    877. 

The  hereditary  fiefs  were  simply  independent  kingdoms,  without  real 
subordination  to  any  other  civil  power.  As  opposed  to  this  power  of  the  Great 
Barons  the  later  Carlovingian  kings  had  not  even  the  revenues  of  a  fief  to  pre- 
serve their  dignity  and  pay  "their  expenses.  They  had  at  last  only  the  town  of 
Ijaon,  east  of  Paris,  for  royal  domain 


178 


PRANCE. 


Map  Study.— Empire  of  Charlemagne  aud  Divisione  of  the  Treaty  of  Verdun,  p.  154 
Saxony  (Saxonia),  p.  156 ;  Laon,  p.  156. 

CARLOVINGIAN    RULERS   OF   FRANCE  TO   THE   10th   CENTURY. 

Pepin A.  D.  752-768 

Charlemagne,  son  of  the  foregoing "      768-814 

Louis  the  Pious,  "  "  "      814-840 

Charles  the  Bold,  "  "         "      843-877 

Louis  II.,  "  ♦*         "      877-879 

Louis  III.,  "  "  "      879-882 

Karlmann,  brother  of  the      "  "      882-884 

Charles  the  Fat,  2d  cousin  of  the  foregoing "      884-888 

Charles  the  Simple,  son  of  Louis  II " 


TENTH  CENTURY. 

FRENCH    KINGS   OF  THE   10th    CENTURY. 

Charles  the  Simple. a.  d.  (888>-929 

Louis  IV. ,  son  of  the  foregoing "      929-954 

Lothair,  "  " "      954-986 

Louis  v.,  "  "  

Hugh  Capet 

Robert 


987-996 
996-(1033) 


Charles  the  Simple. 
{Ancient  MS.) 


In  911  a  band  of  Northmen  under  Eollo, 
by  treaty  with  Charles  the  Simple,  settled  the 
territory  since  called  Normandy,  in  the  lower 
valley  of  the  Seine.  This  province  was  granted 
them  as  a  means  of  preventing  the  desultory 
landings  of  their  pirate  countrymen.  It  was 
now  their  interest  to  protect  the  coasts. 

Northman  barbarism  at  the  time  of  set- 
tlement is  illustrated  by  the  story  of  Rollo's 
homage  to  Charles  the  Simple.  When  sum- 
moned to  kiss  the  king's  foot  he  ordered  an 
attendant  to  perform  the  ceremony.  This  was 
effected  with  such  rudeness  as  to  throw  the 
king  on  his  back,  amid  the  boisterous  laughter 


I'HE    TENTH    CENTURY.  I79 

of  Rollo's  followers.  But  these  Northmen  (Normans)  became 
Christian  converts,  and  rapidly  assimilated  the  French  language, 
laws,  and  civilization. 

Although  now  relieved  from  foreign  invasion,  the  lack  of  a 
central  royal  authority  left  France  a  prey  to  the  feuds  and  con- 
flicts of  lawless  Barons.  The  right  of  private  war  was  absolute 
(p.  153)  and  the  worst  side  of  the  Feudal  System  made  itself 
apparent. 

Capetian  Dynasty. — In  987  the  Carlovingian  line  became 
extinct.  The  Duke  of  Paris,  Hugh  Capet,  founded  then  the 
dynasty  from  which  all  the  later  kings  of  France  have  sprung. 
For  the  time  being  the  only  apparent  change  in  the  character  of 
French  monarchy  was,  that  the  king  had  at  least  as  much  territory 
as  some  of  his  so-called  vassals. 

This  Territory  was  the  Isle  de  France  (with  the  Orleanais; 
Orl-e-anai),  the  province  of  which  Paris  is  the  capital.  The  de- 
velopment of  modern  France  consisted  in  the  gradual  consolidation 
around  this  territory  of  other  feudal  provinces,  which  successively 
yielded  their  feudal  and  provincial  independence  to  the  authority 
of  the  royal  power. 

Map  Study.— Normandy  (Normannia),  p.  156;  Isle  de  France  and  the  Orleanais— their 
extent  at  p.  156.    For  the  provinces  themselves  see  a  modern  map  of  France. 

SYNCHRONISTIC     QUESTIONS     FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE  ON    THE 
10th    CENTURY. 

Explain  the  Feudal  System  and  its  origin.    (Pp.  152,  153.) 

In  what  country  was  the  local  independence  of  feudal  territories  held  in  check  until  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century  ?    (Pp.  153,  163.) 

Who  founded  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  ?    (P.  154.) 

In  what  country  was  its  system  continued  ? 

How  long  after  the  settlement  of  Normandy  began  the  Saxon  line  of  emperors  ?    (P.  156.) 

Who  was  the  greatest  Saxon  emperor  ?    (P.  157.) 

What  was  his  century  ? 

Does  his  reign  fill  the  earlier,  later,  or  middle  portion  ?    (P.  163.) 

What  countries  acknowledged  his  sovereignty?    (P.  157.) 

In  what  century  were  the  beginnings  of  Christianity  in  Denmark?  (P.  158.)  Poland  and 
Bohemia?    (P.  158.) 


180  FRANCE. 

What  Englieh  king  died  one  year  after  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century  ?    Ans.,  Alfred 
the  Great. 

Who  was  Pope  iu  the  year  1000  ?    (P.  158.) 

Of  what  German  emperor  had  he  a^  a  monk  been  tutor  ? 

Of  what  French  king  had  he  also  been  the  tutor  ?    Ans.  Of  King  Robert. 

ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 

FRENCH    KINGS   OF  THE  11th  CENTURY. 

Robert A.  D.  (996)-1033 

Henry  I. ,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1033-1060 

Philip  I.,  "  "  "      1060-1108 

The  Truce  of  G-od. — The  confusion  and  disorder  of  this  period 
in  France,  and  also  the  efforts  of  the  Church  to  improve  it,  are 


Knights  Tilting  at  a  Mannikin.    Fifteenth  Century  MS.  at  BrusselB. 

apparent  in  the  institution  of  the  **  Truce  of  God."  By  a  series  of 
provincial  Church  Councils  a  suspension  of  arms  was  ordered  during 
each  week  from  Wednesday  night  to  Monday  morning. 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  181 

Chivalry. — A  more  effectual  and  permanent  influence  was 
exerted,  in  the  efforts  of  the  Church  to  turn  the  warlike  instincts 
of  Feudalism  in  the  right  direction,  by  the  institutions  of  chivalry. 
These  proposed  the  devotion  of  the  warrior  to  the  service  of  the 
Church,  of  the  poor  and  of  the  oppressed.  The  conditions  of  chiv- 
alric  education,  by  which  the  knight  was  bound  to  undergo  a 
species  of  novitiate  and  to  maintain  an  unsullied  honor,  humanized 
and  softened  the  manners  of  the  age.  The  elemental  institutions 
of  the  Feudal  Period  w*ere  Germanic  (p.  152),  but  the  develop- 
ment of  chivalry  w^as  peculiarly  French,  and  this  nation  above  all 
others  has  ever  since  retained  the  ideal  of  the  self-respect,  the 
courtesy  and  the  bravery  of  a  "  man  of  honor."  The  Court  of  the 
King  of  France  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  highest  school  of 
courtesy  for  the  whole  kingdom. 

The  Crusades. — The  consecration  of  the  warlike  s])irit  to  the 
service  of  Christianity  and  of  Christendom  took  visible  and  practical 
shape  in  the  Crusades,  which  began  at  the  close  of  the  11th  century. 
Jerusalem  was  taken  from  the  Infidels  in  1099. 

Normans  in  Naples  and  Sicily.— In  this  century  also  the  swords  of 
the  Norman  kniglits  began  to  carry  French  ascendency  to  other  countries  of 
Christendom.  In  1016  Norman  pilgrims  had  assisted  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Arabs  from  lower  Italy.  Serving  at  first  the  Byzantine  and  Lombard  rulers  of 
the  state  of  Naples,  they  became  its  masters  after  1059,  when  Robert  Guiscard 
was  made  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria  by  Pope  Nicholas  II.  Sicily  was  res- 
cued by  them  at  the  same  time  from  the  Arabs  and  was  added  to  the  new  state. 
The  Italian  Normans  rendered  great  service  to  the  Roman  Pontiffs  in  their 
contest  with  the  emperors. 

Normans  in  England.— In  1066  the  Normans,  under  William  the  Con 
queror,  accomplished  the  conquest  of  England.  By  this  conquest  England  was 
connected  with  French  culture,  and  the  period  of  Anglo-Saxon  barbarism  was 
brought  to  a  close. 

The  kings  of  France  were  still  of  small  importance  in  terri- 
torial possession.  They  were  confined  to  their  domain  of  the  Isle 
de  France,  and  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  was  undertaken 
and  accomplished  without  the  least  reference  to  the  wishes  or  in- 


182  FRANCE. 

terests  of  the  contemporary  king,  Philip  I.  It  is  not  till  after  1100 
that  the  personal  influence  of  the  monarchs  made  itself  appreciable 
in  French  history.  They  first  became  important  during  the  period 
of  the  Crusades,  and  as  a  result  of  the  influence  of  the  Crusades  on 
France.  Among  the  kings  of  the  11th  century  the  name  of  Robert 
is  distinguished  for  Christian  charity  and  devotion. 

Map  study.— Norman  kingdom  of  Sicily  and  Naples,  p.  182.  Apulia,  same  map.  Cala- 
bria, p.  156.  Normans  in  England,  p.  182.  Observe  the  relations  of  color  in  Normandy  and 
England.  As  the  Norman  conquest  precedes  the  date  of  this  map,  turn  to  page  156  for  the 
domain  of  French  monarchy  "  Francia,"  in  the  11th  century. 

SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS   FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

What  line  of  German  emperors  succeeded  the  Saxon  line  in  1024  ?    (P.  163.) 

Who  was  the  first  Franconian  emperor  of  this  line  ? 

What  kingdom  in  Southeast  France  was  incorporated  in  his  empire  in  1032?    (P.  159.) 

What  were  the  dimensions  of  this  state  ?    (P.  157.) 

To  what  state  belonged  the  modern  French  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  'i    (P.  15t.) 

To  what  state  belonged  the  Netherlands  ?  Switzerland  ?    (P.  157.) 

Who  was  the  second  emperor  of  the  Franconian  line  ?    (P.  163.) 

What  new  kingdom  acknowledged  his  sovereignty?  (P.  159.)  When  Christianized? 
(P.  158.) 

Who  was  French  king  in  1077  ?    (P.  180.)  * 

Who  was  Pope  in  1077  ?    (P.  160.) 

What  happened  in  this  year  ?    (P.  160.) 

How  long  after  the  Norman-French  conquest  of  England  ?    (P.  181.) 

How  long  before  Jerusalem  was  taken  from  the  infidels  ?    (P.  181.) 

Give  the  important  events  of  the  years  1066,  1077, 1099? 

What  nation  took  most  active  part  in  the  Crusades  ?    Am.    The  French. 

What  tended  to  estrange  the  German  empire  from  interest  in  the  First  Crusade  f  Ans. 
The  contest  with  the  Popes. 


TWELFTH    CENTURY    (INCLUDING     THE     FIRST  CRUSADE 
JUST    BEFORE     i  loo). 

FRENCH    KINGS   OF  THE   12th   CENTURY. 

Philip  I A.  D.  (1060)-1108 

Louis  VI.,  son  of  the  foregoing , "  1108-1137 

LouisVII.,       "               "         •'  1137-1180 

Philip  II.,  Augustus,  son  of  the  foregoing , , , , , . »    "  1180-1^33 


THE    FIRST    CRUSADE.  183 

Cause  of  the  Crusades. — The  Mohammedan  Arabs  had  con- 
quered Syria  from  the  East-Roman  or  Byzantine  Empire  in  637 
A.  D. ;  but  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre  were  not  molested  till 
toward  1100,  after  the  Mohammedan  Turks  had  supplanted  the 
Arab  rule.  The  Turks  were  originally  wandering  marauders  of  the 
steppes  between  the  Caspian  and  Aral,  which  extend  south  to  the 
Persian  plateau.  They  adopted  the  religion  of  Mohammed  in  the 
7th  and  8th  centuries,  after  the  Arab  conquest  of  Asia,  which 
reached  beyond  the  Indus.  Then,  in  the  decline  of  Arab  power 
and  civilization,  the  Turks  assumed  the  role  of  ruling  and  propping 
up  the  Mohammedan  countries.  The  Turks  holding  Syria  in  the 
11th  century  were  the  Seljuks  ;  not  the  tribe  of  Othman,  which 
afterward  established  the  present  state  of  Asiatic  and  European 
Turkey. 

The  First  Crusade  for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  from 
Unbelievers  was  preached  in  Southern  France  by  Peter  the  Hermit, 
a  monk  of  Amiens.  Of  all  nations  the  French  entered  into  the 
Crusades  most  enthusiastically,  and  the  name  of  the  Christians  of 
Europe  in  the  East  has  always  since  been  the  **  Franks."  In  conse- 
quence of  letters  brought  by  Peter  the  Hermit  from  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  depicting  the  oppressions  of  the  pilgrims,  and  of  the 
pressing  appeals  from  the  East-Roman  Emperor,  whose  territories 
in  Asia  Minor  had  been  conquered  by  the  Turks,  Pope  Urban  II. 
convened  the  Council  at  Clermont  in  1095,  by  which  the  Crusade 
was  publicly  proclaimed.  The  appeal  of  Urban  II.  was  greeted  by 
the  assemblage  with  the  cry,  "It  is  the  will  of  God."  The  enthu- 
siasm comprehended  all  orders  of  society,  and  private  feuds  were 
abandoned. 

Details  of  the  First  Crusade.— An  advance  army  of  Crusaders  fell  to  pieces  on 
the  march,  and  was  dispersed  in  the  plains  of  Hungary  and  Bulgaria  for  lack  of  organism  and 
supplies.  The  second  army,  which  also  marched  by  way  of  the  Danube,  reached  the  walls  of 
Constantinople  600,000  strong.  Its  commander  was  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (boo-S-yon),  Duke  of 
Lower  Lorraine,  who  now  atoned  for  earlier  share  in  the  opposition  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV. 
to  Gregory  VII.  Other  leaders  were  Hugh  of  Vermandois  (vermandwa),  brother  of  Philip  I.  of 
France  ;  Robert  of  Normandy,  son  of  William  the  Conqueror  ;    Bohemund  of  Tarentum,  Nor- 


184 


FRANCE 


man  ruler  of  Southern  Italy  and  son  of  Robert  Guiscard  ;  and  Raymond  the  Count  of  Tou- 
louse, ruler  of  Languedoc.  The  first  work  of  the  Crusaders  was  the  siege  and  capture  of  Nicasa, 
in  Northwestern  Asia  Minor,  for  to  this  extent  had  the  Seljuk  Turks  overrun  the  domain  of  the 
Byzantine  state.  The  army  of  the  Sultan  of  Iconium,  the  ruler  of  Turkish  Asia  Minor,  was  de- 
feated at  Dorylieum,  east  of  Nicaea.  The  Crusaders  then  marched  under  incredible  privations 
and  ditficulties  through  Asia  Minor  to  Tarsus.  The  dithculties  of  obtaining  forage  and  pro- 
visions, the  debilitating  effects  of  the  Eastern  climate  for  Europeans,  and  ignorance  of  the  ter- 
ritory to  be  traversed,  were  obstacles  not  less  serious  than  the  task  of  combating  with  the 
highly  trained  warriors  of  the  East.  The  Feudal  chivalry,  whose  force  lay  in  the  valor  and 
prowess  of  individual  knights,  was  not  adapted  to  distant  expeditions  or  to  union  in  large 
bodies.  Thus  the  ultimate  success  of  the  First  Crusade  is  sufficient  testimony  to  the  zeal  and 
valor  of  its  leaders  and  soldiers. 

Capture  of  Jerusalem.— On  reaching  Northern  Syria,  a  por- 
tion of  the  crusading  army  under  Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey,  was 

directed  across  the 
Northern  Euphrates, 
and  here  was  founded 
the  Christian  princi- 
pality of  Edessa.  This 
was  to  protect  the 
Christians  in  Syria 
from  attacks  by  way 
of  the  Euphrates.  The 
siege  of  Antioch  occu- 
pied nine  months,  and 
after  its  capture  it 
became  the  centre  of  a 
principality  ruled  by 
the  Italian  Norman, 
Bohemund  of  Taren- 
tum.  Only  1,500 
knights  and  20,000 
foot  reached  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem.  They 
stonned  the  city  on  the  15th  of  July,  1099.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
was  elected  the  first  Christian  king  of  Jerusalem,  but  refused  to  wear 
the  crown  where  our  Saviour  had  borne  the  chaplet  of  thorns.    Th^ 


Church  of  the  Holy  Scpulclire,  Jerusalem. 
(Built  by  the  dmsaders.) 


TWELFTH    CENTURY. 


185 


hold  of  the  European  Christians  ou  Syria  lasted  for  two  centuries, 
although  Jerusalem  itself  was  lost  in  1187. 

The  later  Crusades  generally  miscarried,  or  was^ted  much  energy  in  proportion  to 
apparent  resultB,  but  the  broad  fact  still  remains  that  the  forces  of  the  Mohammedan  East  were 
thus  occupied  at  home  and  prevented 
from  making  aggressive  war  on  Eu- 
rope. The  two  centuries  of  Christian 
occupation  in  Syria  gave  that  much 
additional  lease  of  life  to  the  East- 
Roman  Empire,  which,  although  it 
showed  the  Crusaders  no  gratitude, 
continued  an  important  factor  in  the 
developnient  of  Western  civilization 
until  the  middle  of  the  15th  century. 
The  commercial  relations  of  the  Gen- 
oese and  the  Venetians  were  firmly- 
established  at  this  time  in  the  Le- 
vant, and  continued  long  after  the 
Crusades  were  over,  and  until  mod- 
ern times  entered  on  new  paths  of 
commerce  with  Asia. 

The    Second    Crusade 

was    undertaken    in     1147,    in 

consequence   of    the    conquest 

by  the  Saracens  of  the  principality  of  Edessa.     The  French  king  Louis  VII. 

and  the  Hohenstaufen  emperor  Con- 
rad III. ,  both  took  part  in  it  at  the 
summons  of  Pope  Eugene  III.  St. 
Bernard,  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  (clare- 
vo)  was  active  in  promoting  it.  The 
Christian  armies  were  almost  de- 
stroyed in  Asia  Minor,  mainly  by 
the  perfidy  of  the  Byzantine  allies, 
who  began  to  fear  the  West  more 
than  the  East.  The  remnants  of 
these  armies  which  reached  Syria 
laid  siege  to  Damascus  without 
success,  and  Edessa  was  not  re- 
covered. 
Third  Crusade. — In  1187  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turk  Saladin, 


Tomb  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 

Church  at  Jerusalem. 


Castle  of  the  Syrian  Crusaders  near  Tiberias. 
{Restoration  frmn  the  Ruins.) 


From  a  drawing  made  1828 ;  the  tomb  since  destroyed. 


186 


FRANCE 


wliose  successes  confined  the  Christians  to  two  strips  of  territory  on  the  Syrian 
coast,  the  principalities  of  Tripolis  and  Tyre,  led  to  the  Third  Crusade,  time  of 

Pope  Urban  III.  The  Hohenstau- 
fen,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  was  its 
most  important  leader,  on  account 
of  the  discipline  of  his  army  and 
his  military  experience.  He  was 
drowned  in  crossing  the  river  Caly- 
cydnus  (near  Tarsus),  which  had  once 
been  nearly  fatal  to  Alexander  the 
Great.  Deprived  of  his  leadership, 
the  German  army  reached  the 
Syrian  Christians  with  diminished 
numbers  and  weak  heart.  Forces 
led  by  Richard  I.,  ''the  Lion- 
hearted,"  of  England,  and  by 
Philip  II.  of  France,  sailed  across 
the  Mediterranean  to  Syria,  and 
assisted  the  Crusaders  already 
engaged  in  the  siege  of  Acre. 
The  capture  of  Acre  was  the  only  great  success  of  the  Third  Crusade. 
Dissensions  between  the  French  and  English  kings  caused  the  return  home  of 
the  former.  Richard  performed  prodigies  of  valor  as  a  knight,  but  as  a  general 
he  was  not  successful  in  coping  with  Saladin,  and  Jerusalem  was  not  recovered. 


Knight  of  the  Twelfth  Century. 
{From  a  seal  dated  1196.) 


Rise  of  French  Royalty. — Meantime,  in  France  the  three 
reigns  which  cover  the  12th  century — those  of  Louis  VI.,  Louis  VIL, 
and  Philip  XL,  began  that  development  of  the  royal  power  which  was 
destined  to  make  of  this  country  the  first  compactly  organized  and 
united  modern  state  of  Continental  Europe.  Under  the  direc- 
tion of  Suger  (su-jfi),  Abbot  of  St.  Denis  and  Minister  of  Louis  VI. 
and  Louis  VII.,  the  policy  of  royal  alliance  with  the  civic  commu- 
nities was  inaugurated. 


The  city  comfiiunes  were  the  centres  of  comraerce,  and  therefore  were 
the  natural  antagonists  to  the  system  of  feudal  territorial  independence  and 
private  war,  which  had  left  the  rulers  of  France  without  real  power  since  the 
death  of  Charlemagne.    Charters  and  liberties  were  now  granted  by  the  kings 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  187 

to  the  communes,  which  secured  their  financial  and  military  alliance  for  the 
monarchy  in  its  contest  with  the  Feudal  system.  This  alliance  was  promoted  by 
the  influence  of  the  Crusades.  Public  sentiment  had  been  raised  above  narrow 
local  jealousies  by  contact  with  foreign  nations,  and  the  merchant  classes 
acquired  wealth  and  consideration  by  the  more  luxurious  mode  of  life  intro- 
duced after  contact  with  the  East. 


Map  Study  for  the  Crusades.— Byzantine  Empire,  p.  140.  This  empire  is  called 
indifferently  Byzantine,  East-Eoman,  or  Greek.  It  is  the  Greek  half  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
On  this  map  it  is  marked  by  the  words  "  Greek  Empire."  Compare,  for  Arab  conquest  of  Syria 
and  Egypt,  map  at  p,  154.  For  f^irther  description  of  these  and  other  conquests,  see  history 
of  the  Arabs  and  Turks,  in  Book  lU. 

Caspian  and  Aral  Seas,  see  a  moder«  map.  Amiens,  in  Northern  Prance,  modem  map. 
Turkish  encroachment  on  Byzantine  Empire  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  182.  Clermont,  p.  182.  Hun- 
gary and  Bulgaria,  the  same.    Constantinople,  the  same. 

On  same  ma^,  Lorraine— (belongs  to  what  empire  ?)— Toulouse  and  Langiiedoc,  Nicsea, 
Iconium,  Dorylaeum. 

Enlarged,  map  of  Syria,  time  of  the  Crusades,  Tarsus,  Edessa,  Antioch,  Jerusalem. 

Clairvaux,  in  Champagne.    Damascus,  p.  154.    Tripolis,  Tyre,  Acre  (see  Ptolemais),  p.  182. 


■      MAP  EXPLANATION  TOR  ECTBOPE  DURING  THE   TWELFTH  CBNTITRT. 

Eleanor  of  Acquitaine,  wife  of  Louis  VII.,  had  for  a  short  time  brought  her  husband 
as  her  dowry  and  inheritance,  the  whole  of  Southwestern  France.  But  Eleanor  was  divorced 
from  Louis  VII.  soon  after  the  Second  Crusade,  and  carried  these  territories  to  her  second 
husband,  Henry  11.,  King  of  England  irt  1154 

Since  the  Norman  conquest  of  England,  the  Normans  also  ruled  Brittany  and  Maine.  The 
additional  extent  of  the  English  color  is  derived— first,  from  the  Plantagenet  inheritance  of 
Anjou  and  Touraine.    The  father  of  Henry  II.  was  Count  of  these  provinces.    Second  : 

Henry's  marriage  with  Eleanor  gave  the  English  kings  Acquitaine  (in  which  name 
Gascony  was  then  included),  that  is,  the  whole  of  Southwest  France.  The  provinces  of  this 
hiheritance  are  to  be  looked  out  on  a  modem  map.  They  are  Gascony,  Guienne,  Limousin, 
Angoumois,  Saintonge,  Poitou,  and  Auvergne. 

Thus,  in  the  12th  century,  one  French  Baron  ruled  about  a  third  of  France  and  England 
beside. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  French  king  ruled  only  about  one-fifteenth  of  France. 

The  following-  were  also  Feudal  independent  territories  : 

Languedoc,  map,  p.  183. 

Provence  and  Dauphine  (map  for  Europe  about  1400)  were  in  "Burgundy,"  p.  182,  and 
belonged  to  the  Germanic  Empire  (p.  157). 

Champagne  (p.  156)  was  an  independent  Feudal  state. 

Franche  Comte  (or  the  Free  County  of  Burgundy)  belonged  to  the  Germanic  Empire. 

Lorraine  and  Alsace  (modern  map)  belonged  to  the  Germanic  Empire.  See  explanations 
at  p.  157. 

Picardy  (modern  map)  belonged  to  the  Count  of  Flanders  (Flandria,  p.  156). 


188  FRANCE. 

The  Duchy  of  Burgundy  (map  for  Europe  about  1490),  where  see  its  distinction  from  the 
county  and  kingdom  of  same  name),  was  also  independent. 

The  foregoing-  explanations  are  especially  important  for  the  later  part  of  the  reign  of 
Philip  II.  and  for  following  sovereigns.  Under  them  modern  France  began  to  be  built  up 
from  these  hitherto  independent  states,  beginning  with  the  Anglo-French  provinces. 


SYNCHRONISTIC  AND  OTHER  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE. 

FIRST  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  line  of  emperors  began  in  1137  ?    (P.  163.) 

What  two  French  kings  may  be  dated  by  this  year  ?    (P.  182.) 

When  did  Barbarossa  become  emperor  ?    Ans.  In  1152. 

Who  was  French  king  then  ? 

Date  the  battle  of  Legnano  ?    Afis.  1176. 

What  change  in  the  relations  of  Italy  and  Germany  does  this  recall  ?    (P.  161.) 

Who  was  Pope  ?    (P.  161.) 

What  followed  ?  Ans.  The  independence  and  subsequent  greatness  of  the  Italian  Com- 
munes. 

Name  the  most  important  ?    Ans.  Venice,  Milan,  Genoa,  Pisa,  Florence. 

What  is,  therefore,  the  most  important  feature  of  Italian  history  in  the  12th  century  ? 

What  is  the  important  feature  of  French  history  in  this  century?    (P.  186.) 

When  did  the  Gothic  Cathedralti  rise  in  Germany  ?    (P.  169.) 

What  do  they  indicate  ?    (P.  169.) 

Whence  did  the  style  come  ?    (P.  169.)    When  did  it  begin  ?    Ans.  In  the  ISth  century. 

How  many  Crusades  in  the  12th  century  ? 

What  German  emperor  took  part  in  the  Third  Crusade  ?    What  French  king  ? 

What  sovereignty  did  the  provinces  of  Northwestern  France  acknowledge  in  the  reign  of 
Philip  II.  before  1200  ?    Ans.  The  English, 

What  sovereignty  was  acknowledged  by  Southwestern  France?    Ans.  The  English, 

What  sovereignty  was  acknowledged  by  Southeastern  France  ?    Ans.  The  German. 

SECOND  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  provinces  of  France  were  not  subject  to  the  monarch  in  1200  ? 

What  great  events  had,  however,  led  the  people  to  wish  for  closer  unity  ? 

In  what  ways  did  the  Crusades  assist  the  rise  of  French  monarchy  ?    (P.  187.) 

Why  were  the  City  Communes  opposed  to  the  Feudal  System  ?    (P.  186.) 

What  is  the  century  of  St,  Bernard  ? 

By  what  Crusade  can  his  date  be  fixed  ? 

What  sovereigns  did  he  influence  and  inspire  ?   Ans.  Lothair  the  Saxon  and  Louis  VII, 

What  important  event  of  English  history  belongs  to  the  12th  century  ?  Ans.  The  murder 
of  Thomas  a  Becket,  1170. 

What  important  event  of  Irish  history  In  the  12th  century?  Ans.  The  Anglo-Norman 
invasion,  about  1170. 

When  was  founded,  by  French  Normans,  a  Norman  state  in  Naples  and  Sicily  ?    (P.  181.) 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 


189 


What  became  of  this  kingdom  at  the  close  of  the  12th  century  ?    (P.  162.) 

What  wat?  the  Byzantine  Empire  ?    (P.  135.) 

What  province  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  was  almost  entirely  conquered  by  the  Seljuk  Turks, 
before  the  First  Crusade  ?    Map  for  the  12th  century. 

What  provinces  had  been  conquered  by  the  Mohammedan  Arabs  ?  (P.  150,  and  map  for 
Charlemagne,  p.  154.)    When?    (P.  150.) 

From  whom  had  the  generals  of  Justinian  conquered  Northern  Africa  ?    (P.  147.) 

When  did  the  Vandals  come  there?    (P.  144.) 

Of  what  empire  was  it  a  portion  previously  ? 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 

FRENCH   KINGS  OF  THE  13th  CENTURY. 

Philip  II.,  Augustus A.  D.  (1180)-1323 

Louis  VIII.,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1223-1226 

Louis  IX.,  "  "        "      1226-1270 

Philip  III.,  "  "         "      1270-1285 

Philip  IV.,  the  Pair,  son  of  the  foregoing '*    1285-(1314) 


Calhedrai  ut  2>uirc  l^iiac,  i'liiis.    Bniit  in  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus. 


190  FRANCE. 

Royal  Acquisition  of  Northwestern  France. — After  the 
death  of  Richard  of*  England  m  1199,  the  succeeding  English  king 
John  had  murdered  his  nephew,  Duke  Arthur  of  Brittany,  the 
rightful  heir. 

From  motives  of  policy  and  of  justice,  Philip  II.  Augustus 
had  espoused  the  cause  of  Arthur,  and  as  John's  feudal  lord 
cited  him  to  answer  for  the  crime.  John  refused  to  appear, 
and  in  consequence  lost,  after  1204,  as  much  by  disaffection  of 
these  provinces  as  by  conquest  of  arms,  Normandy,  Brittany, 
Anjou,  Maine,  Touraine,  Poitou,  Saintonge,  Angoumois,  and  the 
Limousin.  Guienne,  including  Gascony,  alone  remained  English. 
The  Channel  Islands,  which  still  belong  to  England,  are  the 
meagre  remnant  of  the  possessions  lost  by  John  to  the  French 
king. 

Auvergne  was  also  about  the  same  time,  in  1209,  acquired  by 
confiscation. 

Battle  of  Bouvines. — 'J'o  recover  his  losses,  John  united  an 
army  of  Germans  and  Flemings  150,000  strong.  Philip  defeated  it 
with  an  army  of  60,000  militia  of  the  Communes  at  Bouvines,  be- 
tween Lille  and  Tournay,  1214. 

Albigensian  Crusade. — To  this  hold  gained  on  Northern  and 
Western  France  was  soon  added  the  control  of  Languedoc,  the  most 
important  province  of  the  South.  In  Southern  France  the  sect  of 
the  Albigenses,  named  from  the  town  of  Alby,  bad  developed  a 
heresy  dangerous  to  religion  and  to  morals.  Pope  Innocent  III. 
proclaimed  a  crusade  against  them,  which  was  undertaken  by  the 
French  of  the  North. 

Acquisition  of  Languedoc. — The  general  in  command  against 
the  Albigenses  was  the  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  whose 
son  is  considered  the  originator  of  the  English  House  of  Commons. 
To  Simon  de  Montfort  was  given  the  province  of  Languedoc,  for- 
feited by  its  ruler,  Eaymond  of  Toulouse,  on  account  of  the  sym- 
pathy and  assistance  given  the  Albigensian  sectaries.  Amalric, 
elder  son  and  successor  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  unable  to  control  his 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  191 

inheritance,  transferred  it  three  years  after  the  death  of    Philip 
Augustus,  to  his  successor,  Louis  VIII.  (in  1226). 

The  Fourth  Crusade. — At  the  opening  of  the  13th  century,  in  1302,  the 
Fourth  Crusade  was  undertaken  to  recover  Jerusalem,  lost  since  1187  (p.  185). 
The  expedition  was  assembled  at  Venice,  and  by  Venetian  persuasion,  after  set- 
ting sail,  was  directed  against  the  Byzantine  state,  contrary  to  the  Pope's 
wishes.  Constantinople  was  taken,  and  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  was  de- 
clared sovereign  of  the  "Latin  Empire "  of  the  East,  although  three-fourths  of 
its  territories  were  divided  among  other  participants "  in  the  expedition,  the 
Venetians  taking  the  larger  share.  This  "  Latin  Empire  "  lasted  from  1204  to 
1261,     The  Byzantine  Empire  was  then  reconstituted. 

The  Fifth  Crusade. — Although  two  abortive  expeditions  are  sometimes 
included  in  the  number  of  the  Crusades,  the  fifth  is  generally  counted  as  the 
one  undertaken  by  the  Hohenstaufen  emperor,  Frederick  IL,  in  1227  and  1228. 
He  was  successful  in  making  a  truce  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  by  which  Jeru- 
salem was  yielded  again  to  the  Christians.  But  in  1244  a  new  horde  from  the 
steppes  near  the  Caspian,  the  Charismian  (Karismian)  Turks,  overflowed  Syria, 
and  Jerusalem  was  lost  once  more. 

The  Sixth  Crusade. — This  led  to  the  Sixth  Crusade,  undertaken  in  1249 
by  the  French  king,  Louis  IX.,  the  most  celebrated  sovereign  of  Medieval 
France.  His  expedition  was  directed  against  Egypt,  in  order  to  secure  by  the 
possession  of  this  country  a  sure  hold  of  Syria.  But  after  some  successes,  the 
army  and  king  were  made  captives  by  the  Egyptian  Sultan.  Louis  was  ran- 
somed, and  spent  some  time  in  assisting  the  Crusaders  of  Syria  to  strengthen 
their  positions  on  the  coast,  returning  to  France  in  1254. 

The  Seventh  Crusade. — In  1270,  Louis  IX.  again  undertook  a  Crusade, 
the  seventh  and  last.  Intended  to  conquer  both  Egypt  and  Syria,  it  was  first 
directed  against  the  Mohammedans  of  Tunis,  and  was  here  overtaken  by  a 
pestilence  in  which  the  king  lost  his  life. 

Later  history  of  the  Christians  in  the  East.— Discontent  at  the  diminution  of 
Louis'  ransom  by  tlie  Egyptian  Sultan  had  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  latter  by  his  body-guard 
of  Tartar  and  Caucasian  slaves,  called  Mamelukes.  They  placed  one  of  their  own  number  on 
the  throne  of  Egypt  and  then  gradually  wrested  from  the  Christians  in  Syria  their  remaining 
strongholds.  After  desperate  resistance  Acre,  the  last  crusading  fortress  in  this  country,  was 
taken  in  1291. 

The  Ottoman  Turks  occupied  Constantinople,  1453,  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
later,  but  the  Knights  of  St.  John  held  the  Island  of  Rhodes  till  1523,  and  Cyprus,  which 
passed  to  the  Venetians,  was  held  by  them  till  1571.  In  this  year  the  naval  battle  of  Lepanto 
was  a  decisive  check  on  the  farther  advance  of  the  Mohammedans  in  Europe.    (See  Turkish  his- 


192  PRANCE. 

toTj,  Book  in.)  It  is  not,  however,  till  our  own  century  that  the  Turkish  Mohammedan  powei* 
has  begun  sensibly  to  yield  ground.  The  miserable  condition  to  which  its  rule  has  reduced  the 
once  flourishing  territories  of  Southeastern  Europe,  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Syria,  Egypt  and  North 
Africa,  is  an  all-sufficient  testimony  to  the  fiar-seeing  wisdom  of  the  Mediaeval  Popes,  in  unit- 
ing the  energies  of  Europe  against  the  foe  of  its  civilization  and  in  attacking  it  on  its  own 
ground. 

In  a  time  when  the  arms  and  inventions  of  Western  civilization  have  placed  it  above  the 
danger  of  destruction,  it  is  not  easy  to  estimate  the  dangers  which  threatened  it  when  the 
weapons  and  skill  of  Eastern  warfare  were  equal,  and  often  superior,  to  those  of  the  West. 
To  the  policy  of  the  Popes— which  enabled  the  states  of  Europe  to  develop  their  strength  and 
forces  before  the  barrier  against  the  East  which  the  Byzantine  Empire  interposed  was  over- 
thrown—the very  existence  of  modern  civilization  must  be  attributed. 

"  Although  the  later  Crusades  were  unsuccessful  and  the  territorial  gains  of  the  earlier  ones 
were  gradually  lost  (the  fall  of  Acre  at  the  close  of  the  13th  century,  1291,  ended  the  Christian 
power  in  Syria),  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  result  of  the  Crusades  was  a  failure.  Their  imme- 
diate effect  was  to  save  the  Christian  world  from  a  Ttirkish  invasion,  and  to  teach  the  sons  of 
the  Prophet  what  they  had  to  fear  from  the  warriors  of  Jesus  Chiist  They  increased  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  power  of  the  Popes,  who  were  supreme  directors  of  the  transmarine 
warfare.  The  political  influences  of  the  Crusades  extended,  1st,  to  the  rulers,  who  were 
enabled  by  them  to  strengthen  their  authority  and  extend  their  domain  ;  2d,  to  the  nobility— the 
orders  of  knighthood  established  in  the  East  shed  their  lustre  upon  Europe  and  were  imitated 
in  every  Christian  kingdom;  3d,  to  the  people— the  Crusades  did  more  than  any  other  agent 
to  favor  emancipation,  the  establishment  of  municipalities,  and  of  the  third  estate  or  commons  ; 
4th,  to  commerce  and  indntry— the  growing  necessity  for  more  frequent  journeys,  their 
profitable  issue,  and  many  practices  borrowed  from  the  pilots  of  the  Levant,  gave  a  great  im- 
pulse to  the  nautical  art.  The  maritime  cities  which  became  the  emporiums  of  Eastern  com- 
merce drew  to  themselves  increase  of  population,  and  some  of  them  became  powerful  repub- 
lics. Witness  the  prosperity  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa,  Marseilles  and  Barcelona.  Prom  the 
same  source,  though  by  less  direct  action,  sprang  the  wealth  and  activity  of  the  Flemish  cities, 
which  were  at  once  commercial  and  manufacturing  towns,  serving  as  great  marts  between  the 
North  and  South.  The  soil  was  taught  to  bear  new  products,  and  the  mulberry,  buckwheat, 
sugar  cane,  etc.,  were  brought  into  Europe.  The  Crusades  advanced  general  civilization  by 
opening  new  relations  between  the  various  nations  and  the  mutual  interchange  of  practical 
knowledge.  The  laws  of  honor  and  courtesy  were  communicated  by  chivalry  to  the  practices 
of  daily  life  and  did  much  to  raise  the  middle  classes.  The  repeated  expeditions  to  Syria,  the 
diplomatic  relations  consequently  opened  with  the  Mongols  of  the  farther  East,  and  the  new 
roads  they  cleared  for  commerce,  gave  to  the  West  a  much  more  correct  notion  of  the  East 
and  even  of  the  interior  of  Asia.  Oriental  history  also  shared  the  new  light  cast  upon  geogra- 
phy, and  Arabia  gave  to  medical  science  many  new  ideas  for  the  treatment  of  diseases  and  the 
use  of  simples,  while  mathematics  and  mechanics  were  eoricbed  from  the  treasures  of  Eastern 
lore.''— {Abbe  Darras'  "  History  of  the  Church."") 

The  Domestic  Policy  of  Louis  IX.  was  not  attended  by 
the  disasters  which  the  Eastern  cHmate  and  unaccustomed  surround- 
ings brought  upon  his  two  foreign  expeditions.  He  was  both  a 
strict  and  merciful  executor  of  justice.  He  protected  the  common 
people,  held  in  check  his  Barons  and  won  the  hearts  of  all  by  up- 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY 


193 


right  behavior  and  nobility  of  life.  In  view  of  the  very  recent  and 
large  increase  in  the  extent  of  the  royal  domain,  of  the  savage  Albi- 
gensian  war  by  which  one  portion  had  been  gained,  and  of  the  insub- 
ordinate spirit  of  the  times,  the 
later  security  and  solidity  of 
the  French  monarchy  must  be 
attributed  largely  to  the  esteem 
for  it  which  he  inspired  in  his 
people. 

Louis  IX.  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Boniface  VIIL  at  the 
close  of  the  same  century.  He 
owed  mucli  of  the  elevation  of 
his  mind  to  the  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans  by  whom  he 
was  surrounded.  On  difficult 
questions  he  was  wont  to  con- 
sult St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 

Under  Philip  III.  the 
monarchy  was  peaceful  and 
well  governed. 

Philip  IV.,  the  Fair,  added  (^^^^^  *'^  ^"' 

to  its  territory  Champagne,  in  1285,  by  marriage  with  its  heiress.  In 
his  relations  with  the  Church  he  lacked  the  spirit  of  Louis  IX.,  and 
maltreated  shamefully  Boniface  VIIL,  who  had  canonized  his  grand- 
father. His  difficulties  with  the  Pope  arose  from  the  exactions 
which  he  practised  on  the  French  clergy,  and  these  again  were 
caused  by  need  of  money  to  carry  on  war  with  the  English  and  their 
Flemish  allies — defeat  of  the  French  at  Courtrai  (Koortray),  1302. 

The  Templars. — The  same  need  of  money  led  to  Philip's  con- 
fiscations of  the  wealth  of  the  Knights  Templars,  who  were  cruelly 
persecuted  by  him  to  this  end.  History  is  in  doubt  as  to  the  crimes 
of  the  Temple  Order,  but  not  as  to  the  cruelty  of  Philip's  process. 
The  Order  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Clement  Y.  in   1312.     It  had 


Amiens  Cathedral. 

reign  of  Louis  IX.) 


194  FRANCE. 

been  the  great  bulwark  of  the  Crusaders  in  the  East,  but  became 
corrupt  by  the  immense  wealth  heaped  upon  it. 

Map  Study.— The  provinces  lost  by  John  are  indicated  by  the  light  blue  color  on  map 
for  the  12th  century  ;  if  Gaecony  and  Guienne  be  noted  as  the  only  ones  remaining  English. 

Province  of  Auvergne,  see  modern  map. 

Bouvines,  in  Flanders. 

Languedoc,  map  for  Europe  about  1400.    Alby,  northeast  of  Toulouse,  modem  map. 

V'enice,  p.  182  ;  Tunis,  p.  182 ;  Rhodes,  modern  map  ;  Cyprus,  p.  182 ;  Lepanto,  modera 
map  of  Greece,  north  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth ;  Champagne,  p.  156 ;  Courtrai,  in  Flanders. 

MAP  EXPLANATION. 

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX.,  had  been  given  this  province  of  Anjou  by  his 
father.  He  added  to  it,  by  marriage  with  its  heiress— Provence  (map  for  1400),  so  far  a  feudal 
territory  of  the  Germanic  Empire,  but  by  this  time  practically  independent  of  it,  and  by  con- 
quest from  Conradin,  heir  of  the  Hohenstaufens— Naples  (South  Italy),  1268. 

In  this  conquest,  made  by  Papal  assistance  and  approbation,  Sicily  was  included  ;  but  this 
island,  lost  to  the  French  by  the  massacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers.  1282,  passed  to  the  House 
of  Aragon,  through  a  marriage  relationship  of  the  Hohenstaufens  and  the  preference  of  the 
revolted  people. 

Thus  was  founded  the  French  Angevin  line  in  Naples,  with  Provence  as  dependency. 
(Angevin  is  an  adjective  formed  from  Anjou.)    See  also  the  color  for  Aragon  and  Sicily. 

SYNCHRONISTIC    AND    GEOGRAPHICAL    QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN 
EXERCISE  ON  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

FIRST   REVIEW   LESSON. 

Who  was  French  king  before  and  after  1200  ?    (P.  189.) 

Who  was  Pope?    (P.  168.) 

What  influence  had  this  Pope  on  English  history?  Ans.  He  appointed  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Stephen  Langton,  who  procured  the  great  charter  of  English  liberties  horn  King 
John. 

What  provincea  did  King  John  lose  to  Philip  II.  ?    When  ? 

Since  when  had  an  English  king  ruled  Normandy  and  Brittany  ?  Ans.  Since  the  Norman 
conquest  of  England. 

Date  it  ?    (P.  181.) 

Since  when  had  an  English  king  ruled  Anjou  and  Maine  ?    (P.  187.) 

Since  when  had  an  English  king  ruled  the  Acquitanian  inheritance  ?    (P.  187.) 

What  were  these  '•  English  "  kings  ?    Ans.  French  Barons. 

What  province  was  united  with  the  French  monarchy  in  1209?    (P.  190.) 

When  was  Languedoc  united  with  the  monarchy  ?    (P.  191.) 

As  result  of  what  war  ? 

What  Pope  prompted  the  Albigensian  Crusade  ?    (P.  190.) 

What  Pope  procured  the  Fourth  Crusade  ?    Ans.  Innocent  IIL 

Did  its  result  meet  his  wishes  ?    (P.  191.) 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  195 

SECOND    EEVIEW  LESSOK- 

What  province  passed  to  a  French  ruler  (not  the  king)  in  the  time  of  Louis  IX.  ?    (P.  194.) 

How  did  it  become  connected  with  Naples  ?    (P.  194.) 

From  whom  was  Naples  conquered  ?    (Pp.  162.  194.) 

When  had  the  Hohenstaufens  obtained  it  ?    (P.  162.) 

From  whom?    (P.  181.) 

Who  was  Hohenstaufen  emperor  at  the  time  ?    (P.  162.) 

For  what  else  is  Henry  VI.  renowned  ?  Ans.  For  detaining  Richard  the  Lion-hearted,  of 
England,  in  captivity  on  his  return  from  the  Third  Crusade.  Richard  was  not  released  till 
he  paid  a  heavy  ransom. 

What  was  the  legal  condition  of  Provence  when  it  passed  to  Charles  of  Anjou  ?  Ans.  Fief 
of  the  German  Empire. 

Since  when  ?    (P.  159.) 

But  when  had  the  power  of  the  emperor  met  a  decided  check  ?    (P.  160.) 

When  had  it  been  mainly  excluded  from  North  Italy  ?    (P.  161.) 

What  sustained  the  emperors  in  Italy  a  little  longer  ?    (P.  162.) 

Who  overthrew  the  Hohenstaufen  cause  finally  ?    (P.  162.) 

When  were  Germanic  pretensions  to  sovereignty  over  Southeastern  France  formally 
abandoned  ?    (P.  166.) 

What  province  was  united  with  the  French  monarchy  in  1285  ?    (P.  193.) 

What  province  was  receded  to  England  under  Henry  III.,  son  of  John,  by  Louis  IX.  ?  Ans. 
The  Limousin. 

What  province  had  the  English  always  retained  since  the  time  of  Eleanor  of  Acquitaine  ? 
Ans.  Guienne,  including  Gascony. 

What  French  provinces,  therefore,  had  the  English  in  the  time  of  Louis  IX.  ? 

How  would  you  fix  the  time  of  Eleanor  of  Acquitaine  ?  Ans.  Divorced  from  Louis  VII. 
and  married  Henry  It.  after  the  Second  Crusade.    Date  the  Second  Crusade. 

What  cathedral  dates  from  Philip  Augustus  ?    Ans.  Notre  Dame,  in  Paris. 

What  king  founded  the  University  of  Paris?    Ans.  Philip  Augustus. 

What  is  his  central  date  ? 

Who  founded  the  college  and  theological  faculty  of  the  Sorbonne?  Ans.  Robert  de 
Sorbon,  chaplain  of  Lonis  IX. 

THIRD   REVIEW   LESSON". 

Who  was  French  king  in  1250  ?    (P.  189.)    When  did  he  die  ? 
How  long  before  the  accession  of  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  did  he  die  ?    (P.  164.) 
What  is  the  character  of  the  empire  after  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  ?    (Pp.  163,  164.) 
What  influence  on  the  French  monarchy  had  Louis  IX.  ? 
What  Saint  and  theologian  was  his  friend  ? 
Who  caused  him  to  be  canonized  ? 
When  did  Louis  IX.  die  ? 

When  did  Edward  I.  succeed  Henry  III.  as  King  of  England  ?    Ans.  1272. 
How  many  years  between  the  death  of  Louis  IX.  and  accession  of  Edward  I.  ? 
How  many  years  between  the  accessions  of  Edward  I.  and  of  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  ? 
What  phase  of  English  history  begins  with  Edward  I.  ?    Ans.  The  French  Buron,  King  of 
England,  has  become  an  English  king  with  French  possessions. 


196  FRANCE. 

What  was  the  result  ?  Ans.  Jealousy  between  the  two  nation?,  as  opposed  to  feudal  con- 
tentions between  Frenchmen  ;  the  earlier  aspect  of  French  and  English  relations. 

What  war  offered  Philip  the  Fair  opportunity  to  harass  the  English?  Ans.  Edward's  war 
with  Scotland  after  1290. 

Into  what  crime  and  cruelties  did  this  contention  draw  Philip  IV.  the  Fair  ?    (P.  193.) 

Who  was  French  king  in  1200  ?    In  1250  ?    In  1300  f 

Date  the  death  of  the  last  Hohenstaufen  emperor  ?    Ans.  1254. 

What  important  event  in  Northeastern  Eitrope  in  the  13th  century  ?    (P.  168.) 

When  was  Syria  abandoned  by  the  Christians  ?    (P.  191.) 

Did  they  therefore  abandon  resistance  to  the  encroachments  of  the  Mohammedan  East  ? 
(P.  191.) 

What  shows  the  necessity  of  the  Crusades  ?    (P.  192.) 

When  have  the  Turks  begun  to  lose  their  hold  on  Europe  ?    (P.  192.) 


FOURTEENTH     CENTURY. 


THE  DESCENT  OF  EDWAUD  III    AND  PHILIP  VI.   OF  VALOIS. 


Philip  III.,  +1285. 


I  1 

Philip  IV.  the  Fair.  + 1314.  Charles  of  Valois. 

I — — 1-  Philip  VI. 

Louis  X.  Philip  V.  Charles  IV.  Isabella = Edward  II. 

+  1316.  tl322.  +1327.  | 

Edward  III. 


FRENCH    KINGS  OF  THE   14th  CENTURY. 

Philip  IV.  the  Fair A.  D.  (1285-1314 

liouis  X.     ^  (  "      1314-1316 


Philip  V.      \-  sons  of  the  fore^ing \  "      131C-1322 

Charles  IV.J  [  "      1322-1327 

Philip  VI.  of  Valois "      1327-1350 

John,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1350-1364 

Charles  V.,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1364-1380 

Charles  VI.,       "  *'  **  1380-(1422) 

BeigD  of  Philip  the  Fair,  continued.— Notwithstanding  the  bad  per- 
sonal character  of  Philip  IV.,  he  assisted  the  tendencies  of  the  country  to  unite 
under  the  monarchy.  The  still  remaining  obstacle  to  this  national  unification 
was  the  hold  of  the  English  kings  on  Acquitaine  (dating  from  the  marriage  of 
Henry  II.  and  Eleanor).  The  consequent  tension  between  France  and  England 
resulted  in  a  war  which  lasted  over  a  century  and  terminated  in  the  subsequent 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY 


197 


rise  of  France  as  the  first  modern  monarcliy.  Philip  IV.  had  seized  portions  of 
this  Southwestern  France,  when  the  English,  under  Edward  I.,  were  engaged 
in  war  with  Scotland  after 
1390,  and,  to  combat  the 
English  in  France,  the 
Scotch  were  openly  or  cov- 
ertly assisted.  This  led, 
when  England  was  freed 
from  the  Scotch  war,  to- 
ward 1330,  to  the  out- 
break of  the  long  wars  be- 
tween France  and  England, 
which  continued  till  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century. 


The  accession  of 
Philip  VI.  gave  Ed- 
ward III.,  of  England, 
pretext  for  declaring 
war,  on  account  of  his 
own  descent  from  Phil- 
ip IV.,  whose  daughter 
Isabella  was  his  mother. 
Edward's  claim  could 
not  stand  in  French 
law,  which  gave  prefer- 
ence to  the  male  line.  The  ambition  of  the  English  king  was, 
however,  not  only  to  hold  Southwestern  France  independent  of  the 
French  allegiance  legally  due,  but  to  regain  also  the  provinces  lost 
by  John  (p.  190).     Hence  the  claim  to  the  French  throne. 

The  Franco-English  "Wars.— The  first  period  was  one  of  suc- 
cess for  the  English— victories  of  Sluys  (naval),  1340;  of  Grecj, 
1346,  and  Poitiers,  1356.  In  this  last  battle  the  French  king  John 
the  Good  was  taken  prisoner,  and  he  died  in  captivity. 

The  Peace  of  Bretigny  (Bretinyi),  in  1360,  gave  the  English 
absolute  possession  of  Acquitaine,  as  opposed  to  their  earlier  feudal 


Church  of  St.  Ouen,  at  Eouen. 
(Early  14th  Century.) 


198  FRANCE. 

possession,  but  they  abandoned  the  claim  to  the  French  crown  and 
to  the  Northern  provinces  conquered  by  Phihp  II.  from  John. 

The  war  was  reopened,  at  the  accession  of  Charles  V.,  in 
1364,  by  the  French.  As  carried  on  by  their  national  hero,  Du 
Guesclin  (Ghaklin),  it  resulted  in  the  almost  entire  expulsion  of  the 
English.  They  only  retained  Bordeaux  and  Calais.  This  latter  town 
had  been  taken  after  the  victory  of  Crecy.  The  war  languished  after 
1380,  under  Eichard  II.  of  England,  and  the  overthrow  of  this  king, 
in  1400,  by  the  Lancastrian  dynasty  of  Henry  lY.,  represented  the 
resulting  English  discontent. 

Map  Study.— Sluys,  in  Flanders,  p.  200  ;  Crecy,  or  Cressy,  extreme  Northern  France  ; 
Poitiers,  in  Poitou,  p.  200. 

Bretigny,  southwest  of  Paris,  p.  200.  The  English  possessions  given  to  England  absolutely 
and  without  French  claim  of  feudal  allegiance  by  the  Treaty  of  Bretigny,  are  light  red  on  the 
map  for  Europe  about  1400. 

Bordeaux,  Southwest  France,  p.  200;  Calais,  extreme  Northern  France,  p.  200. 

MAP  EXPLAJ^ATION  FOR  BUBOPE  ABOUT   1400. 

Compare  map  for  Europe  in  the  12th  century  with  map  for  Europe  about  1400. 

Acquisition  of  Dauphine.— An  important  event  of  the  14th  century  is  the  acquisition 
of  Dauphine.    See  matter  at  page  166. 

Independent  "Secondary"  or  Branch.  Lines.— But  the  process  of  unifying  the 
provinces  of  France  was  counteracted  by  gift  of  territories  to  branches  of  the  royal  family. 
These  then  developed  an  independent  influence,  and  often  assumed  an  attitude  of  veiled  or 
open  opposition  to  the  monarchy. 

Brittany,  after  conquest  by  Philip  Augustus,  was  thus  bestowed  on  the  House  of  Dreux 
(Droo),  founded  by  the  uncle  of  this  king  ;  and  the  dukes  of  Brittany  attained  an  independence 
which  makes  the  subsequent  reunion  of  this  province  with  France,  at  the  close  of  the  15th 
century,  one  of  the  most  universally  quoted  facts  of  French  history. 

Provence  became  in  the  same  way  a  dependence  of  Naples,  when  Charles  of  Anjou, 
brother  of  Louis  IX.,  acquired  this  kingdom  in  the  13th  century  and  transmitted  it  to  hiy 
descendants. 

The  province  of  Anjou  itself  was  reunited  with  the  monarchy  by  Philip  of  Valois^ 
and  John  the  Good  gave  it  to  a  son  Louis — thus  founding  the  Second  Line  of  Anjou. 

Dukedom  of  Burgrundy.— Of  such  branch  lines  the  most  important  of  all  is  the  Line  of 
Burgundy,  also  founded  by  John  the  Good.  John  gave  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  (map,  p.  200) 
to  his  son  Philip  the  Bold,  1361. 

Distinctions  as  to  the  meaningr  of  the  word  Burgrundy. -Under  this  duke  and 
three  successors  was  developed,  by  additions  through  marriage,  purchase  and  conquest,  quo  of 
the  most  important  European  states  of  its  time.  Its  possessions,  as  transmitted  by  marriage, 
were  an  essential  element  in  the  greatness  of  the  most  potent  sovereign  of  the  16th  century, 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  ;  and  ignorance  of  its  nature  and  territories  involves  a  hopeless  con- 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY 


199 


fusion  in  the  details  of  history  after  1500.  Such  confusion  is  favored  by  the  varying  applica- 
tion of  the  word  "Burgundy  "  at  different  periods  of  history  and  its  simultaneous  use  in  dif- 
ferent senses  for  the  same  period. 

The  origrinal  kingdom  of  Burgrundy  (map,  p.  140),  founded  by  the  Burgundians  of 
the  5th  century,  took  in  the  territories  on  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  reaching  from  beyond 
their  western  banks  to  the  eastern  borders  of  modern  France  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
into  Switzerland.  It  took  in  the  territories  afterwards  known  as  the  Franche-Comt6  or  free 
county  of  Burgundy,  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  Savoy,  Dauphine  and  Provence.  All  of  these 
territories  were  incorporated  in  the  Prankish  dominions  after  534  (p.  149). 

In  the  division  at  Verdun,  843,  the  later  "  duchy  "  of  Burgundy — that  is,  the  province 
so  named  on  the  modern  map  of  France — was  included  in  the  French  territories  of  Charles  the 
Bald.  The  remaining  provinces  were  part  of  the  Imperial  domain  of  Lothair  (map  at  p.  154). 
When  this  domain  was  dismembered  soon  after  (p.  156),  the  Burgundian  territories  were  ruled 
by  independent  princes  and  kings  till  the  formal  incorporation  with  the  "  Empire  "  ;  time  of 
Conrad  II.,  1032  (p.  159).  They  are  known  (map  at  p.  156)  as  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  or 
Ardat  (from  the  town  of  Aries). 

Of  the  two  most  important  Southern  provinces  of  this  state,  Provence  came 
under  Charles  of  Anjou  (13th  century)  and  so  to  the  State  of  Naples,  while  Dauphine  became 
a  French  province,  as  just 
noted,  in  1347,  when  the  Em- 
peror Charles  IV.  abandoned 
any  farther  Imperial  claims  on 
Arelat. 

Meantime,  the  French 
Duchy  of  Burgundy,  united 
with  the  monarchy  under  Rob- 
ert and  transferred  by  him  to 
the  line  founded  by  his  son, 
continued  under  this  house  till 
its  extinction  in  1361.  John 
the  Good  then  gave  it  to  his 
eon  Philip  the  Bold. 

From  this  time  "Bur- 
gundy," which  once  indicated 
provinces  reaching  from  the 
French  duchy  to  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean, comes  to  mean  coun- 
tries reaching  north  of  the 
duchy  to  the  North  Sea. 

The  first  Duke,  Philip 
the  Bold,  added  to  the 
French   Duchy    by    marriage 

— Franche-Comte,  Artois  and  Flanders  (map  at  p.  200  and  modem  map),  feudal  dependen- 
cies of  the  Germanic  Empire.  But  the  weakness  of  the  Empire  at  this  time  (see  the  German 
history)  left  the  ov/ner  of  these  possessions  an  independent  prince.  By  conquest,  purchase,  or 
marriage,  these  possessions  were  so  extended  before  the  middle  of  the  next  century  (the  15th) 
as  to  include  Luxemburg  and  the  Netherland  provinces,  that  is,  modern  Belgium  and  Holland. 


Seal  of  John  the  Fearless,  third  Duke  of  "Burgundy." 


200  FRANCE. 

The  final  extent  of  the  Burgnndian  territory  is  represeuted  on  the  map  for  Europe 
about  1550,  where  the  purple  color  in  the  " Franche-Comte "  and  the  "  Netherlands"  denotes 
the  Burgundian  inheritance  of  Charles  V.  and  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  But  the  duchy  itself  has 
meantime  reverted  to  Prance  under  Louis  XI. 

Independence  of  a  Burgrundian  Duke.— In  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking  the 
Netherland  territories  were  attached  to  the  Germanic  Empire,  but  really  yielded  their  ruler  the 
position  of  an  independent  sovereign.  Thus  for  a  small  part  only  of  his  posscst^ions  was  a 
Burgundian  duke  of  the  15th  century  even  theoretically  the  subject  of  a  French  sovereign. 
For  his  richest  territories  he  was  feudally  connected  with  an  empire  which  had  abandoned  its 
pretensions  to  real  sovereignty. 

The  towns  of  the  Netherlands,  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  etc.,  by  their  commerce 
and  manufactures,  were  the  richest  and  the  most  important  of  Northern  Europe.  The  Flemish 
manufactures  of  cloth  connected  their  commercial  interests  with  those  of  England,  which  fur- 
nished them  with  wool.  Thus  is  explained  the  hostility  to  France  of  the  "Burgundian" 
dukes,  in  the  15th  century,  during  and  after  the  Franco-English  wars.  In  the  next  section  any 
further  explanation  of  this  Burgundian  hostility  to  France  will  be  tumecessary. 


SYNCHRONISTIC  AND  OTHER    QUESTIONS    FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

FIRST   REVIEW    LESSOX. 

Name  the  English  kings  of  the  14th  century?  Am.  Edward  I.,  Edward  II.,  Edward  III., 
Richard  II.  tl400. 

How  did  the  Scotch  war  affect  relations  with  France  ?    (P.  197.) 

Why  were  the  French  disposed  to  antagonize  the  English  ?    (P.  196.) 

When  did  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  French  unity  begin  ?    (P.  186.) 

On  which  side  were  the  brilliant  victories  of  the  Franco-English  wars? 

On  which  side  the  solid  results  ?    (P.  198.) 

What  did  these  victories  demonstrate?  An.^.  The  inutility,  in  large  battles,  of  the  Feudal 
chivalry,  on  which  the  French  depended,  as  opposed  to  organized  bands  of  foot  like  the  Eng- 
lish bowmen.  The  knights  were  employed  by  the  EngUsh  to  complete  their  victories,  not  to 
begin  them. 

What  important  province  was  united  with  the  French  monarchy  in  1347  ?    (P.  166.) 

Who  was  king  ?    (P.  196.) 

Who  became  the  first  Dauphin  ?    (P.  166.) 

Who  was  emperor  ?    (P.  166.) 

What  had  he  to  do  in  this  acquisition  ?    (P.  166.) 

Wbo  was  his  father  ?    Ans.  John  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia.     (P.  165.) 

Where  was  this  king  of  Bohemia  killed  ?    Ans.  At  Cr6cy. 

What  motto  and  crest  were  then  borrowed  from  this  king  of  Bohemia  by  the  English  Prince 
of  Wales  ?    Ans.  The  three  ostrich  feathers  and  motto  "  Ich  dien  "  (I  serve). 

What  is  the  date  of  the  Golden  Bull?    (P.  170.)    Of  the  battle  of  Poitiers  ? 

Who  was  paternal  grandfather  of  the  Emperor  Charles  TV.  ?    (P.  166.) 

How  does  Henry  VH.  of  Luxemburg  call  up  the  name  of  Dante,  the  Italian  poet  ?    (P.  166.) 

What  is  the  century  of  Dante  ? 


FOURTEENTH     CENTURY.  201 

SECOKD    KEVIEW   LESSON". 

Who  is  the  leading  French  author  of  the  14th  century  ?  Ans.  Froisyart,  the  liistorian  of  the 
age,  1337-1410, 

What  leading  English  author  lived  in  the  14th  century  ?  Aus.  Chaucer,  author  of  the  Can- 
terbury Tales,  1328-1400. 

What  is  the  significance  of  these  authors  ?  Ans.  They  indicate  the  beginnings  of  the 
modern  Italian,  French,  and  English  languages. 

When  was  modern  German  formed  ?    Am.  Not  till  the  16th  century. 

What  does  this  indicate  ?    A>is.  A  more  backward  condition  of  national  unity. 

What  shows  this  condition  ?    (P.  164.) 

Who  was  French  king  in  1300  ?    In  1400  ? 

In  what  year  began  the  history  of  the  famous  Burgundian  dukedom  ?    (P.  198.) 

Under  what  king  ? 

What  province  had  this  king  acquired  as  Dauphin  ? 

What  other  pro\ince  beside  Burgundy  did  he  transfer  to  another  son  ?     (P.  198.) 

What  line  was  thus  founded  ? 

How  many  years  of  the  14th  century  are  covered  by  the  united  reigns  of  Louis  X.,  Philip  V. 
and  Charles  IV.  ?    (P.  196.) 

For  what  are  these  kings  distinguished?  Ans.  For  various  acts  of  administrative  wisdom, 
which  make  more  effect  in  the  lives  of  nations  than  on  the  pages  of  books. 

What  shows  the  rise  of  the  lower  orders  to  power  and  influence  in  the  French  state  during 
the  14th  century?  Ans.  The  "sumptuary"  laws  of  Philip  the  Fair  (against  luxury  of  living) 
and  the  rebellion  of  the  serfs  and  of  the  Third  Estate  (the  common  people)  after  Poitiers. 
During  the  captivity  of  King  John  a  merchant,  Etienne  Marcel,  for  a  moment  ruled  Paris  and 
even  France.    He  was  overthrown  by  the  Dauphin,  who  became  soon  after  Charles  V. 

What  important  event  took  place  in  Southeastern  Europe  in  the  14th  century  ?  Ans.  The 
Ottoman  Turks  established  themselves  in  portions  of  Byzantine  Europe. 

What  important  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  belongs  to  the  14th  century  ?  Ans. 
Their  residence  at  Avignon  from  1305  to  1378. 

How  long  did  Avignon  continue  a  posse  jiion  of  the  Popes  ?  Ans.  Till  the  French  revolu- 
tion of  1789. 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY. 
FRENCH    KINGS   OF  THE   15th    CENTURY. 

Clmrles  VI a.  d.  (1380)-1422 

Charles  VII.,  son  of  the  foregoing '. .     "       1422-1463 

Lonis  XL,  "  "         "       1462-1483 

Charles  VIIL,        "  "         "       1483-1498 

Louis  XIL,  2d  cousin  of  the  foregoing "     1498-(1515) 

Orleanists  and  Burgundians. — Since  1392  Charles  VI.  had 
been  insane.     The  regency  was  contested  by  two  parties  whose  fac- 


202 


FRANCE 


tions  distracted  the  kingdom.    Louis  of  Orleans,  the  king's  brother, 
was  opposed  by  the  king's  uncle,   Philip  the  Bold  of  ''Burgundy," 

who  coveted  his  position  and 
his  influence.  The  son  of 
this  first  Burgundian  duke 
(his  successor  in  1404),  John 
the  Fearless,  continued  this 
strife  with  his  cousin,  and 
in  1407  procured  his  assas- 
sination. Tlie  Orleans  party 
was  now  headed  by  the 
Count  of  Armagnac  (Arman- 
yak),  father-in-law  of  the 
murdered  duke's  son. 

Henry  V.  of  England 
resolved  to  take  advantage 
of  these  disorders  and  to  sus- 
tain his  credit  at  home  by 
recommencing  the  foreign 
war.  After  the  victory  of 
Azincourt,  in  1415,  he  con- 
quered the  whole  of  Nor- 
mandy, while  party  conflicts 
still  weakened  the  French. 
In  1419  an  interview  between  the  Dauphin,  of  the  Orleans  or  Ar- 
magnac party,  and  John  the  Fearless,  was  arranged  at  Montereau 
(Montero)  and  the  latter  was  murdered  by  the  Dauphin's  attendants, 
in  revenge  for  the  assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 

Treaty  of  Troyes. — This  led  to  a  formal  coalition  between  the 
immense  power  of  Burgundy  (Philip  the  Good)  and  the  English,  by 
the  Treaty  of  Troyes,  1420.  Henry  V.  was  declared  by  this  treaty  the 
successor  of  Charles  VI.,  whose  daugliter  Catherine  he  married.  The 
jilnglish  occupied  Paris,  and  after  the  death  oF  Henry  V.,  in  1422,  the 
regents  for  his  young  son  Henry  VI.  met  with  continued  successes, 


Castle  of  Pierrefonds.    Built  by  Louis  of  Orleans. 


FIFTEENTH     CENTURY. 


203 


Joan  of  Arc. — The  power  of  the  Dauphin,  now  Charles  VII., 
was  confined  below  the  Loire,  and  the  English  siege  of  Orleans  was 
apparently  about  to  terminate 
in  its  capture  and  enable  the 
English  to  overrun  the  South. 
At  this  moment  France  was 
saved  by  Joan  of  Arc,  a  shep- 
herdess of  Domremy,  on  the  bor- 
der of  Burgundy,  which  country 
she  had  learned  to  detest  be- 
cause its  duke  had  sold  France 
to  the  English.  Declaring 
her  miraculous  mission,  she 
raised  the  siege  of  Orleans,  pro- 
cured the  coronation  of  the 
Dauphin  at  "Rheims,  and  led 
her  countrymen  to  victory. 
But  Joan  herself  was  captured 
by  the  English  and  burned  as 
a  sorceress. 

Archers  of  the  15th  Century. 

The  Story  of  Joan  of  Arc.-On  the  (^^^'^  ^"^  ^^^  ^^^"^^  «^  Rheims.) 

24th  of  February,  1429,  the  court  was  visited 

by  a  poor  shepherdess  of  Domremy.  "The  King  of  Heaven,"  said  she  to  the  monarch,  "has 
sent  me  to  tell  you  that  you  shall  be  anointed  and  crow^ned  at  Rheims,  and  shall  rule  France." 
She  said  that  mysterious  voices  had  enjoined  her  to  quit  her  native  village,  and  in  the  armor  of  a 
warrior  to  save  her  king  aud  country.  The  youthful  heroine  of  eighteen  years  was  sent  to 
Poitiers  that  her  vocation  might  be  tested  by  the  bishop  and  doctors.  "  God  needs  not 
warriors,"  they  said  to  her,  "  if  it  be  his  will  to  save  France."  "  The  warriors,"  replied  the 
maid,  "must  fight  and  God  will  give  the  victory."  "And  what  kind  of  language  do  your 
voices  speak?"  asked  a  doctor.  "A  better  one  than  yours,"  replied  Joan,  with  some  fire. 
"If  you  show  no  better  signs  to  give  authority  to  your  words,"  said  the  doctor,  "the  king 
will  not  trust  you  with  his  soldiers,  for  you  would  lead  them  into  danger."  "I  am  not  sent  to 
Poitiers  to  give  proofs  of  my  mission,"  answered  the  heroine.  "  Take  me  to  Orleans  and  you 
shall  see  the  truth  of  my  words.    The  sign  I  am  to  give  is  the  rescue  of  that  city  from  siege." 

She  was  believed  at  last.  The  young  heroine  armed  herself  with  a  sword,  pointed  out  to 
lier  by  the  mystorious  voices.  She  held  a  white  standard  spangled  with  golden  lilies,  aud 
bearing,  as  a  pledge  of  victory,  the  names  of  Jesus  and  Mary. 

On  the  1st  of  April,  1429,  in  open  day,  she  passed  through  the  English  lines  and  entered  the 
beleaguered  city  at  the  head  of  a  provision  train.    On  the  8th  of  May  the  enemy  fled  before  thQ 


204 


FRANCE. 


youthful  maid,  leaving  their  camp  and  military  equipage  in  the  hands  of  the  French.    On  that 
glorious  day  Joan  of  Arc  received  her  title  as  Maid  of  Orleans. 

The  heroine  might  now  claim  to  be 
^  ■'"''^:  ^""""^^i^  believed  on   her  word.     "  The  will  of 

God,"  she  said  to  Charles  VII., ''  is  that 
you  come  to  receive  the  crown  at 
Rheims."  In  a  natural  point  of  view, 
the  idea  seemed  absurd  and  chimerical ; 
such  at  least  was  the  opinion  of  all  the 
leaders.  They  were  more  than  eighty 
leagues  from  that  city,  which  was,  with 
all  the  intervening  country,  in  the 
hnnds  of  the  enemy.  But  what  is  im- 
possible to  man  is  easy  to  God,  and  Joan 
of  Arc  had  proved  that  she  was  the  en- 
voy of  God.  Charles  yielded  to  her  re- 
quest and  set  out  for  Rheims  with  only 
twelve  thousand  men,  without  pro- 
visions or  artillery.  Auxerre,  Troyes 
and  Chalons  successively  opened  their 
gates.  Rheims  expelled  its  English  gar- 
rison and  received  Charles  with  tri- 
umphal pomp  on  the  17th  of  July,  1429. 

During  the  whole  ceremony  of  the 
coronation  Joan,  shedding  tears  of  joy, 
stood  by  the  king  with  her  white  banner 
in  her  hand.  At  the  close  of  the  solem- 
nity, Joan  threw  herself  on  her  knees 
before  Charles  and  kissed  his  feet.  "My  liege,"  she  said  with  tearful  eyes,  "now  the  will 
of  God  is  done.  He  had  decreed  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  to  bring  you  to  Rheims. 
My  mission  is  ended.  I  would  go  back  to  my  parents  to  resume  my  life  as  a  shepherd- 
ess." The  lofty  simplicity  of  her  words  drew  tears  from  every  eye.  But  Joan  had  become 
the  army,  the  hope,  the  treasure  of  France,  and  Charles  could  not  spare  her  then.  She  accord- 
ingly continued  her  glorious  career  ;  but  she  had  said,  "I  shall  last  but  another  year,  or  very 
little  longer;  I  must  therefore  use  it  well."  The  sad  prediction  was  only  too  strictly 
fulfilled. 

On  the  24th  of  May,  1430,  Joan  of  Arc  was  taken  by  the  English  before  the  walls  of  Com- 
piegne  (Conpian).  If  anything  could  add  to  her  glory  it  would  be  the  unbounded  exultation 
displayed  by  the  enemies  of  France  over  their  prisoner ;  their  whole  camp  resounded  with 
cries  of  joy.  The  soldiers  crowded  round  to  gaze  on  her  whose  very  name  had  made  them 
tremble. 

The  heroine  was  taken  to  Rouen  and  tried  for  witchcraft.  Peter  Cauchon  (KOchon), 
Bishop  of  Beauvais  (BO-va)  condemned  the  guiltless  victim  to  the  stake. 

The  execution  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans  will  ever  remain  an  infamous  blot  on  the  English 
nation  (May  30,  1431).  Twenty-five  years  after  the  death  of  Joan  of  Arc,  Pope  Call  rtus  III. 
ordered  the  Archbishop  of  Rheims  to  institute  an  inquiry  into  the  particulars  of  the  cate.  The 
heroine's  innocence  was  clearly  proved  and  her  memory  gloriously  vindicated.    Calixtus  pub- 


Crossbowmen  of  the  15th  Century. 
{From  MS.,  Paris  Library.) 


Coin  of  Louis  XI. 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  205 

lished  a  solemn  sentence  declaring  that  Joan  of  Arc  "  had  died  a  martyr  for  her  faith,  her  king, 
and  her  country."— Abbk  Darkas. 

Acquisition  of  Acquitaine. — The  death  of  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  did  not  save  the  English.  By  1454,  when  the  war  finally 
closed,  they  had  lost  all  possessions  in  France  but  Calais.  Thus, 
as  final  result  of  this  hundred  years  struggle,  Acquitaine  was  added 
to  the  Monarchy. 

Louis  XI. — The  greatest  influence  on  the 
final  solidification  of  France  was  exerted  by 
Louis  XL,  son  and  successor  of  Charles  VIL,  an 
unscrupulous  and  intriguing  nature,  whose  in- 
stincts, however,  clearly  discerned  and  assisted 
the  popular  tendency  to  national  unity.  He 
secured  to  the  advancing  geographical  solidity 
the  moral  support  of  the  nation,  by  his  preference  for  the  common 
people,  and  by  his  contempt  of  feudal  titles.  A  footman  was  his 
herald,  a  barber  his  master  of  ceremonies. 

His  great  rival  was  the  fourth,  last,  and  most  famous  Burgun- 
dian  duke,  Charles  the  Bold.  Charles  proposed  the  conquest  of 
Lorraine,  then  territory  of  the  Germanic  Empire,  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Alsace  (Austrian  domain,  p.  164),  which  he  held  in  pawn 
from  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  He  also  aspired  to  the  royal  title, 
which  it  lay  in  the  power  of  the  Emperor  to  bestow.  His  ambition 
and  his  life  were  cut  short  by  the  battle  of  Nancy,  1477. 

Charles  the  Bold  had  refused  to  receive  the  money  sent  to  redeem  the  Alsatians  from 
his  oppressive  extortions.  The  latter  called  on  the  Swiss  for  assistance,  which  was  accorded, 
and  theBurgundiau  duke  accordingly  invaded  Switzerland.  He  was  decisively  defeated  in  1476, 
at  Granson  and  Morat.  The  Duke  of  Lorraine  then  retook  Nancy,  his  capital,  and  obtained 
the  victory  that  cost  Charles  the  Bold  his  life.  The  gems  from  the  diadem  of  the  Duke,  which 
was  found  on  the  battle-field,  are  dispersed  among  the  regalia  of  the  modern  European  sover- 
eigns, and  many  of  their  most  precious  jewels  are  traced  to  this  single  source. 

Acquisition  of  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy. — Louis  XL  pro- 
ceeded to  confiscate  the  French  territories  of  the  Burgundian  duke- 
dom, namely,  the  French  Duchy  of  Burgundy  and  Picardy,  both  of 


^06  FRANCE. 

which  have  ever  since  been  portions  of  the  French  monarchy.  The 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Mary  of  Burgundy,  to 
secure  her  states  from  farther  losses,  married  Maximilian  of  Austria, 
emperor  after  1493.  This  marriage  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
greatness  of  the  House  of  Austria,  which  thus  acquired  Franche- 
Comte,  Luxemburg  and  the  Netherland  Provinces.  It  also  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  rivalry  of  France  with  the  Hapsburgs,  the  most 
important  feature  of  European  history  in  the  16th  and  in  the  17th 
centuries. 

Acquisition  of  Aiyou,  Maine,  Provence,  and  Brittany. — 
Four  years  after  the  battle  of  Nancy,  died  the  last  heir  of  the  second 
House  of  Anjou  (p.  198).  This  House  had  acquired  Provence,  by 
adoption,  from  the  Neapolitan  line  of  Anjou,  when  this  dynasty 
died  out  in  1433,  with  Joanna  H.  of  Naples.  Louis  XI.  inherited, 
by  the  extinction  of  this  second  line  of  Anjou,  Maine,  Anjou,  and 
Provence,  in  1481.  His  successor,  Charles  VIII.,  added  Brittany  to 
the  crown  by  his  marriage  with  its  heiress.  • 

Influence  of  Italian  Civilization.— To  the  weight  which 
France  was  destined  to  exert  in  history  as  the  first  modem  con- 
tinental state,  consisting  of  a  united  people  under  a  single  ruler, 
was  now  to  be  added  the  refinement  drawn  from  the  civilization 
of  Italy.  The  two  successors  of  Louis  XI. — Charles  VIII.  and 
Louis  XII. — were  the  kings  who  brought  France  into  direct  con- 
tact with  Italy,  and  their  names  will  appear  in  this  connection. 

Map  Study.— Orleans,  on  the  Loire,  p.  200 ;  Azincourt,  in  modem  French  Artois ;  Mon- 
tereau,  southeast  of  Paris ;  Troyes,  the  same ;  Domr^my,  in  Lorraine ;  Rheime,  northwest  of 
Paris,  p.  200  ;  Calais,  extreme  Northern  France,  p.  200 ;  Lorraine,  p.  200  ;  Nancy,  in  Lorraine ; 
Austrian  Alsace,  see  Austrian  Hapshnrg  color  on  this  map  reaching  beyond  the  Rhine,  and 
consult  matter  at  p.  164. 

On  map  for  "Europe  about  1550"  see  Duchy  of  Burgundy  and  Picardy,  with  the  French 
color,  and  compare  boundary  on  "Europe  about  1400."  See  Austrian  Hapsburg  color  (purple) 
reaching  from  Alsace  (Elzase)  over  Franche-Comt4  and  covering  the  Netherlands. 

For  acquisition  of  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Provence,  compare  France  on  the  maps  for  Europe  in 
1400  and  1550. 

For  acquisition  of  Brittany,  compare  the  same  maps. 


FIFTEENTH     CENTURY. 


207 


MAP    EXPLANATION. 


Modern  France  compared  with  France  in  1500.— Before  1500  the  territory  ruled 
by  the  French  king  corrcgponded  to  the  later  France  with  the  following  exceptions— Bish- 
oprics of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  added  by  Henry  II.  (map  for  Europe  about  1550) ;  Belgian 
France  (Artoi-s),  added  by  Louis  XIV,,  Alsatian  Franco,  added  under  Louis  XIV.,  Franche- 
Comt6,  added  under  Louis  XIV.  (map  for  Europe  in  1713);  Lorraine,  added  under  Louis  XV., 
(map  for  Europe  in  1748) ;  Nice  and  Savoy,  added  under  Napoleon  III.  (modern  map).  This  enu- 
meration omits  some  minor  provinces  of  email  extent.  (Alsace  and  part  of  Lorraine,  lost  1871.) 
The  steps  by  -which  France  was  greographically  built  up  are  important,  because 
France  is  the  country  which  most  clearly  exhibits  the  progressive  development  of  modern 
national  monarchy  out  of  the  independent  feudal  estates.  Germany  has  not  even  yet  attained 
to  absolute  national  unity.    It  was  still  a  chaotic  mass  of  small  principalities  in  1500. 

The  same  process  is  obscured  in  England  by  the  fact  that  the  country  was  absolutely 
ruled,  after  1066,  by  a  foreign  conqueror  (w  ho  was  only  a  feudal  lord  himself  at  home).  Thus, 
after  1066,  England  was  not  a  feudal  country  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  being  long  under 
strict  royal  government.  Again,  the  process  is  obscured  in  England  by  the  fact  that  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses,  exhibiting  really  the  power  and  contentions  of  the  Barons,  were  apparently  and 
professedly  wars  between  two  different  royal  claimants.  The  Barons  concealed  themselves 
behind  the  shadow  of  divided  royalty.    Under  Henry  VII.,  time  of  Louis  XL,  England  also 

became  a  modern  national  state  in  the 
political  sense,  but  France  is  the  country 
where  the  logical  process  can  be  geo- 
graphically traced  by  which  independent 
feudal  provinces,  one  by  one,  came  under 
the  roj'al  power. 

Spain  was  made  a  modern  national 
state  by  coalition  of  two  royalties— by  the 
marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Lsabella  and 
union  of  Aragon  and  Castile  in  1469,  and 
by  conquest  of  Grenada  from  the  Moors, 
1492.  Once  more,  then,  France  is  the 
more  clearly  distinct  type  of  the  process 
by  which  modern  nations  in  general  came 
into  being. 

The  tendency  of  European  coun- 
tries to  combine  feudal  principal- 
ities under  national  governments  was 
promoted  by  the  formation  of  national 
languages,  after  1300,  as  opposed  to  a 
multiplicity  of  dialects.  Common  speech 
led  to  common  government.  The  de- 
mand for  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of 
modem  civilization,  which  could  be  only  supplied  by  cities,  and  free  commercial  intercourse, 
demanded  the  overthrow  of  petty  state  divisions  within  the  state  Therefore  the  money  power 
(cities)  assisted  the  kii.gs  against  the  land  power  (feudal  nobles).  The  idea  of  a  nation,  involv- 
ing the  idea  of  common  protection  under  common  laws,  demanded  the  existence  of  au  arbiter 


French  Medieval  Costumes. 
i^Frmn.  MSS.  qf  the  Time.) 


208  FRANCE. 

and  visible  single  head.    The  great  military  and  physical  power  of  feudalism  demanded  an 
absolutely  strong  physical  military  power  to  overpower  it— absolute  monarchy. 

Absolute  monarcliy  is  peculiarly  and  distinctively  modem,  the  means  of  destroying 
feudalism ;  but  in  later  modern  times  the  people,  having  secured  their  place  and  national  posi- 
tion, have  no  longer  needed  in  many  countries  the  protection  of  absolute  royal  power,  hence 
resort  to  constitutional  monarchy  or  to  republics. 


GENERAL   QUESTIONS  FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Who  was  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  victor  at  Nancy  ?  (P.  2(fi.)  Am.  Ren6  the  Good,  of  the 
Second  Ldne  of  Anjou.  This  Line  also  ruled  Provence  since  1433,  and  claimed  Naples 
since  the  same  time  (pp,  206,  219).  Rene  had  acquired  Lorraine  by  marriage  (map,  p.  200).  He 
died  in  1480.  When  his  nephew  and  heir  died  in  1481,  leaving  Maine,  Anjou,  Provence,  and 
claims  on  Naples  to  Louis  XL,  LoiTaine  passed,  by  marriage  of  Rene's  daughter  Violante,  to  a 
branch  of  the  older  Line  of  Lorraine.    Most  of  it  was  fief  of  the  Germanic  Empire. 

Who  were  the  English  kings  of  the  15th  century?  Ans.  Henry  IV.,  Henry  V.,  Henry  VI., 
Edward  IV.,  Richard  III.,  Henry  VH. 

What  followed  the  close  of  the  French  wars  in  England  ?  Am.  The  Wars  of  the  Roses- 
civil  wars  in  which  the  Barons  destroyed  each  other. 

How  was  the  modern  monarchy  prepared  in  England  ?  Arts.  By  the  self-destruction  of  the 
feudal  nobles,  and  the  consequent  rise  of  a  new  aristocracy  of  wealth.  Very  few  noble  families 
of  England  can  trace  back  of  Henry  VII. 

How  was  it  prepared  in  France  ?  Am.  By  the  gradual  consolidation  with  the  monarchy 
of  provinces  whose  nobles  entered  the  service  of  the  state. 

When  did  this  distinction  make  itself  felt  ?  Am.  Especially  in  the  17th  century,  in  the 
inferiority  of  the  Court  of  Charles  II.  to  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV. 

How  did  the  higher  society  of  France  distinguish  itself  in  the  16th  century  ?  Am.  By 
especial  aptitude  for  the  art,  culture,  and  civilization  of  the  Italian  Revival  of  Letters,  or 
"  Renaissance." 

When  did  French  contact  with  Italy  become  especially  close  ?    (P.  206.) 

When  had  this  Italian  civilization  begun  to  develop  its  flower  ?  Am.  After  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  Lombard  and  other  Italian  states  had  been  secured  by  Pope  Alexander  m.  (See 
p.  161  and  questions  at  p.  188.) 

Who  became  the  leading  patrons  of  modern  art  and  literature  ?    Am.  The  Popes  of  Rome. 

In  what  country  is  their  influence  most  evident  ?    Am.  In  Italy. 

What  event  in  the  year  1453  assisted  the  revival  of  letters  ?    (P.  136.) 

What  had  prevented  the  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  ?  Am.  The  political 
jealousy  of  the  Greek  Byzantine  state  toward  the  Latin  world. 

What  had  the  Popes  done  to  achieve  this  union  ?  Am.  Next  to  the  defence  of  the  West 
from  Mohammedan  fatalism,  it  was  their  most  constant  efibrt. 

Who  were  the  guardians  of  learning  through  the  Middle  Ages  ?  Am.  The  dignitaries  of 
the  Roman  Church  and  the  members  of  the  Religious  Orders. 

What  history  naturally  precedes  the  history  of  Western  Europe  after  1500?  Ans.  An 
account  of  the  civilization  of  Italy. 

Synchronistic  Exercise.— Compare  the  following  Table  with  the  Table  by  Centuries 
for  Germany  (p.  170),  and  unite  the  two  in  recitation. 


LEADING    EVENTS    OF    PHeKcH    HISTORY.      209 

LEADING   EVENTS  OF   FRENCH    HISTORY   UNTIL    1500. 

2d  and.  1st  Centuries  B.  C. — Roman  conquests. 

1st,  2d,  3d  and  4th  Centuries' A.  D.— Roman  civilization.    Christiau 
conversion. 


5tli  Century, — States  of  German  West-Goths,  Burgundians,  and  Franks. 
6th  Century.— The  Franks  conquer  all   France  and  South  Germany^ 


7th  Century. — The  Frankish  state  continues  (Merovingian  Line). 


8th  Century. — Arab-Mohammedan  repulse.     Carlovingian  Line. 


9th  Century. — The  Empire  of  Charlemagne  founded  and  divided.     North- 
man ravages.     Feudal  system  ;  explain  it  (pp.  153,  153). 

10th  Century. — Normandy  settled.     Capetian  Line  in  the  Isle  de  France. 

11th  Century. — The  Truce  of  God.  Chivalry  develops.  French-Norman 
conquests  in  Naples,  Sicily,  and  England. 

12th  Century. — Crusades.     Coalition  of  the  Monarchy  with  the  Communes. 
The  "English"  possessions  in  France  enlarged. 

13th  Century. — Crusades  continued.  Normandy,  Brittany,  Anjou,  Maine, 
Touraine,  Poitou,  Saintonge,  Limousin,  Auvergne,  Lan- 
guedoc,  Champagne,  acquired.  Neapolitan  Anjous,  rulers 
of  Naples  and  Provence. 

14th  Century. — Anglo-French  wars.  Dauphine  acquired.  Second  Line  of 
Anjou  founded.     Burgundian  Dukedom  founded. 

15th  Century. — The  Anglo-French   wars   continue   till    1454.     Acquitaine, 
Maine,  Anjou,  Provence,  Plcardy,   Duchy  of  Burgundy^ 
Brittany,  united  with  the  monarchy. 


510 


PRANCE. 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   FRENCH    HISTORY  TILL   1500. 

Clovis,  ruler  of  Northern  France a.  d.  486    Dynasty  ? 

Conquers  the  Allemanians  after A.  d.  497    West  Germany. 

And  Visigothic  Gaul  after "     507     Southwest  France. 

His  successors  conquer  the  Burgundians "     533    Southeast  France. 

All  South  Germany  by  the  same  date. 


EIGHTH    CEKTURY. 

Charles  Martel  at  Poitiers , 

Accession  of  Pepin.    (What  Papal  acquisition  ?). . . 


.A.  D.  732    His  title? 
,    "     753    Dynasty  V 


NINTH    (JENTURY. 

Charlemagne  crowned  Emperor  of  the  West 

Treaty  of  Verdun 


800    Territories  ? 
843    Conditions  ? 


TENTH    CENTURY. 

Normandy  settled.    (By  whom  ?) 

Accession  of  Hugh  Capet.    (Dynasty  ?) 


911     What  reign 
987    Territory? 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 


French  Norman  conquest  of  Naples  and  Sicily .'. 

French-Norman  conquest  of  England 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Crusaders,     (What  reign  ?). . 


1059 
1066 
1099 


Till  when? 
What  reign? 
When  lost? 


TWELFTH    CENTURY. 

Second  Crusade  begins.    (Cause?    Results?) "  1147 

French-Angevin  line  begins  in  England  with  Henry  IL  "  1154 

Third  Crusade  begins.    (Cause?    Results?) "  1189 


What  reign  ? 
Territories  ? 
What  reign  ? 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Philip  II.  worsts  John  of  England.    (What  results?).  "  1204 

Auvergne  confiscated  to  the  crown **  1209 

Languedoc  acquired  after  the  Albigensian  war "  1326 

Louis  IX.,  central  date.    (Name  his  brother.) "  1250 

Champagne  acquired  before  accession **  1285 

Charles  of  Anjou  died.     (What  territories ?) **  1285 


4th  Crusade. 
What  reign  ? 
What  reign  ? 
Crusades  ? 
What  reign  ? 


CHRONOLOGY    OF    FRENCH    HIS'TORY. 


211 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Anglo-French  wars  after A.  d.  1337  What  reign  ? 

Dauphine  acquired "  1347  Emperor  ? 

Peace  of  Bretigny "  1860  Conditions? 

Dukedom  of  Burgundy  founded.     (By  whom?) "  1861  Territories? 

FIFTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Treaty  of  Troyes "  1420  Conditions? 

Joan  of  Arc  raises  the  siege  of  Orleans "  1429  What  reign  ? 

The  Second  Line  of  Anjou  inherits  Provence "  1438  How  ? 

Close  of  the  Anglo-French  wars "  1454  Acquisition  ? 

Death  of  Charles  the  Bold.     (What  acquisitions  ?) "  1477  What  reign  ? 

Second  Line  of  Anjou  extinct,    (What  acquisitions?). .  **  1481  What  reign? 

Charles  VIII.  marries  Anne  of  Brittany "  1491  Acquisition  ? 

FAMOUS    BATTLES   OF   FRENCH    MEDIEVAL   HISTORY. 


Bouvines,  1214. 

Philip  II.  Augustus. 
Victory. 

Courtrai,  1302. 

Philip  IV.  the  Fair. 
Defeat. 

Sluys,  1330. 

Time  of  Philip  VL 

^aval  defeat. 

Crecy,  1346. 

Time  of  Philip  VI. 
Defeat. 

Poitiers,  1356. 

John  the  Good. 
Defeat. 

Azincourt,  1415. 

Time  of  Charles  VL 
Defeat. 

Nancy,  1477. 
Time  of  Louis  XI. 


Significance. — Defeat  of  John  of  England's 
effort  to  retrieve  his  losses,  and  proof  of  the  devo- 
tion of  the  communes  to  the  French  monarchy. 

Significance. — Tremendous  power  of  the  Flem- 
ish cities  and  their  commercial  sympathies  with 
England. 

Significance. — The  naval  superiority  of  Eng- 
land already  begins  to  assert  itself. 


Significance.— M\\ita.Ty     weakness    of 
chivalry  when  combined  in  large  masses. 


Feudal 


Significance — The  same.     These  defeats  were 
decided  by  the  English  archers  and  crossbowmen. 


".ance. — The  same.     Imminent  subjuga- 
tion of  France  by  England. 

Significance. — The  Burgundian  dukedom  ceases 
to  be  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  France. 


212 


FRANCE. 


Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 
Son, 

Sons 


FRENCH    KIMGS  OF  THE   CAPETIAN    LINE  TO  1500. 

Hugh  Capet.     What  was  the  royal  domain?  a.  D. 

Robert.     What  event  in  1033  ?    (P.  159.) 

Henry  I.    What  event  in  1059  ? . .  

Philip  I.    What  events  in  1066,  1077,  1099  ? 

Louis  VI.     What  Minister  and  policy  V 

Louis  VIL    What  event  in  1147  ? 

Philip  II.  Augustus.    What  events  in  1187, 1202, 1204, 1214? 

Louis  VIIL     What  event  in  1226  ? 

Louis  IX.     What  events  in  1227, 1249,  1266, 1268,  1270  ?. . . 

Philip  III 

Philip  IV.  the  Fair.     What  event  in  1285  ? 

(  Louis  X m. 


,\  Philip  V 

^Charles  IV 

Philip  VI.  of  Valois  (Genealogy,  p.  196).     What  events 

Son,  John  the  Good.     What  events  in  1356, 1360,  1361  ? 

Son,  Charles  V.  the  Wise.     What  events  ? 

Son,  Charles  VI.     What  events  in  1415, 1420  ? 

Son,  Charles  VII.     What  events  in  1429, 1433, 1454  ? 

Son,  Louis  XI.     What  events  in  1477,  1481  ? 

Son,  Charles  VIII.     What  event  ? 

Louis  XII.  of  Valois-Orleans  (Genealogy  below) 


987-  996 
996-1033 
1033-1060 
1060-1108 
1108-1137 
1137-1180 
1180-1223 
1223-1226 
1226-1270 
1270-1285 
1285-1314 
1314-1316 
1316-1322 
1322-1327 
1327-1350 
1350-1364 
1364-1380 
1380-1422 
1422-1462 
1462-1483 
1483-1498 
1498-1515 


BRANCHES   OF  VALOIS-ORLEANS   AND   ANGOULEME. 


DBBCENT  OF  LOUIS  XII.   AND  OF  FBANOIS 


Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  Charles  V. 

I 


Charles  of  Orleans. 
tl466. 


Louis  XII. 
149&-1616. 


John,  Count  of  AngouISme. 
Charles,  Count  of  Angoulfime. 


Clande  of  France = Francis  L 
tl547. 

Henry  n. 
tl660. 

I 


Francis  n.    Charles  IX.    Henry  IH.    Marguerite  of  Valois=Henry  IV. 
tl560.  11574.  tl589.  Bourbon  Line. 


ITALY 

BEFORE    AND    ABOUT    A.   D.   1500. 


CIVILIZATION    OF  THE    ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE. 

In  the  earlier  Middle  Ages  Italy  was  one  of  the  most  backward 
countries  in  Europe.  Before  Charlemagne  the  country  had  suffered  much 
from  the  barbarism  of  the  Lombards.  After  Charlemagne  the  Arabs  harried 
the  coasts — entirely  mastering  Sicily,  then  a  territory  of  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
after  880.  They  held  Sicily  until  the  Norraan  conquest  after  1059  (p.  181). 
In  the  10th  century  the  country  suffered  in  the  Northeast  from  the  savage 
Hungarians,  who  at  the  same  time  were  ravaging  Germany, 

The  political  history  of  Italy  after  800  has  been  summarized  in 
the  sections  relating  to  Charlemagne  and  to  the  later  territorial  extent  of  his 
empire,  as  sustained  by  the  Germanic  emperors  of  the  10th,  lltb,  12th  and  13th 
centuries. 

At  the  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufens,  after  1254,  the  Italian  States  be- 
came practically  independent  of  either  an  Imperial  or  Royal  power.  The  Popes 
exercised  a  general  supervision  over  them,  being  also  themselves  temporal 
Italian  princes,  but  never  attempted  to  fetter  their  independence  or  cripple 
their  progress.  The  States  of  Italy  were  civic,  not  feudal.  The  cities  absorbed 
the  landed  proprietors  and  established  for  themselves  territorial  ownerships.  To 
the  absence  of  all  feudal  interference,  or  royal  ownerships,  is  to  be  attributed 
their  unprecedented  vigor  and  greatness,  whioh  finds  its  parallel  only  in  the 
free  States  of  the  Greeks  of  ancient  times. 

The  Italian  civilization  was  already  highly  developed  in  Pisa  and  in 
Venice  in  the  11th  century.  Other  states  were  not  far  behind.  Among  them 
the  greatest  were  Genoa,  Milan,  Mantua,  Padua,  Ferrara,  Bologna,  Florence, 
Siena,  and  Perugia.  Many  others  of  smaller  size,  like  Urbino  and  Rimini,  were 
scarcely  less  important  for  the  history  of  Italian  culture.  The  famous  poem  of 
the  Florentine  Dante  di  Alighieri,  the  "Divine  Comedy,"  belongs  to  the  earlv 


214 


ITALY 


14th  century.  The  Italian  civilization  reached  its  climax  about  1500,  blossom- 
ing out  at  that  time,  and  immediately  after,  into  a  perfection  of  art  rivaling 
the  ancient  Greek.  The  names  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  of  Michael  Angelo,  of 
Raphael,  Titian,  and  Correggio — the  greatest  painters  of  history — all  belong  to 
the  one  generation,  centering  about  1500. 

The  greatest  modern  building,  St.  Peter's,  was  begun  in  1506  under  Pope 


The  Sistine   Chapel,  with  Wall  Puintinps  by  Michael  Angelo.     On  the  ceiling,  the  "Story  of 
Genesis  ;  "  at  the  end  of  the  room,  the  "  Last  Judgment." 


Julius  II.    The  names  of  this  Pope  and  of  his  successor,  Leo  X.,  are  household 
words  to  all  lovers  of  letters  and  of  art. 

Not  only  in  art  and  in  letters,  but  in  j^ovemmental  administration, 
business  relations,  diplomacy,  and  the  conventions  of  modern  society,  Italy 
leads  the  modern  time.  In  Florence  and  in  Venice  were  first  prepared  the 
census  statistics  of  property,  of  taxation,  of  births  and  deaths,  Avithout  which 
pi'^dern  government  could  not  be  carried  on,     Just,  regular  and  systematic 


THE     ITALIAN     RENAISSANCE 


315 


Pope  Julius  II.,  1503-1513. 
{Medal  of  tfie  jjeriod.) 


taxation  for  purposes  of  government,  as  opposed  to  irregular  and  arbitrary 
loans  and  exactions,  still  common  in  Northern 
Europe  until  a  considerably  later  date  than 
1500,  was  usual  here  before  1400.  In  this 
country  was  devised  the  system  of  marine  in- 
surance. Her  bankers  were  in  the  early  15th 
century  already  the  main  dependence  of  north- 
ern sovereigns  for  loans  of  money.  Medieval 
coinage  in  England  was  long  supervised  by 
Florentines,  and  Lombard  Street  in  London 
still  reminds  us  of  the  Italian  bankers  who 
carried  on  business  there.  The  Pitti  Palace  in 
Florence  is  to-day  the  finest  palace  in  Europe, 
and  was  built  by  a  Florentine  banker  of  the  15th  century. 

The  nianiifacturfis  of  Valenciennes  and  Alen^on  lace,  now  so  highly  prized, 
were  borrowed  from  Italy,  and  the  manufacture 
of  Venetian  glass  still  retains  its  reputation. 

Venice  was  especially  important  for  its 
commercial  relations  with  the  East,  and  for 
large  territorial  possessions  in  the  Levant.  Its 
ambassadors  were  the  most  finished  diplomatists 
of  the  16th  century.  The  archives  of  Venice 
are  the  most  valuable  in  Europe  for  modern 
studies  of  this  period;  so  minute  and  exact 
were  the  reports  of  these  ambassadors  from  all 
its  various  courts.  The  skill  of  Genoese  navi- 
gators is  attested  by  a  famous  instance,  and 
Columbus  had  seen  Iceland  before  discovering 
America. 

Ferrara  was  distinguished  for  its  compact  administration,  and  for  the 
high  breeding  of  its  Court.  Here  flourished  in  the  16th  century  the  poet 
Ariosto,  author  of  "  Orlando  Furioso,"  and  Torquato  Tasso,  author  of  ''Jerusa- 
lem Delivered,"  a  poem  based  on  the  events  of  the  First  Crusade. 

Bologna  had  the  leading  university  of  Europe  for  the  study  of  jurispru- 
dence and  of  the  Roman  law. 

In  Padua,  medicine  and  anatomy  were  especially  cultivated.  Here,  at  a 
later  time,  had  studied  Harvey,  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood — a  dis- 
covery possibly  anticipated  by  the  Italians. 

XJrbino  was  celebrated  for  its  library,  the  finest  of  the  time  in  Europe.     Its 


Pope  Leo  X.,   1513-1521. 
{From  a  woodcut  of  the  jperiod.) 


216  ITALY. 

treasures  were  united  with  the  Vatican  collection  in  the  17th  century,  and  have 
assisted  in  securing  that  library  its  undoubted  precedence  over  all  others. 

In  Florence,  the  history  of  Italian  painting  begins  with  the  names  of 
Cimabue  and  of  Giotto,  about  1300.  (Nicholas  of  Pisa,  a  quarter  of  a  century 
earlier,  had  almost  anticipated,  in  his  famous  pulpit  still  to  be  seen  in  that 
city,  the  later  perfection  of  modern  sculpture  by  more  than  two  centuries.)  In 
Florence,  the  great  centre  of  the  Italian  Artists^  of  the  Renaissance  (a  French 
word  meaning  Rebirth  or  Revival  of  ancient  learning  and  civilization),  was  also 
especially  cultivated  the  knowledge  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  authors. 

Toward  1500,  this  knowledge  began  to  be  more  generally  diffused  by  Italian 
influence  over  Northern  Europe  ;  extending  now  to  laymen  that  knowledge  of 
the  ancient  languages  which  had  previously  been  considered  necessary  only 
for  the  clergy.  In  Florence,  the  studies  of  geography  and  astronomy  were  also 
assiduously  cultivated.  From  Florentine  students  of  the  ancient  geographers  the 
rotundity  of  the  earth  was  mads  known  to  Columbus.  Copernicus,  who  first 
of  moderns  reannounced  a  fact  already  known  to  the  ancients  (p.  68)  that  the 
sun  is  the  centre  of  the  planetary  system,  had  spent  five  years  in  Italy,  1500- 
1505.     His  system  was  published  in  1543. 

Influence  of  Italy  on  Europe.— A  modern  German  writer  and  high 
authority  on  Italian  history  declares  that  the  cultivation  of  Italian  women 
before  1500  was  generally  superior  to  that  of  German  ladies  in  our  own  time. 
The  knowledge  of  ancient  languages,  possessed  in  the  16th  century  by  English 
ladies  like  Queen  Elizabeth  or  Lady  Jane  Grey,  was  entirely  Italian  in  deriva- 
tion. The  "  Elizabethan  "  style  of  architecture,  so-called,  is  the  style  of  the 
Italian  "  Renaissance,"  and  so  also  is  the  later  so-called  style  of  "  Queen  Anne." 
The  dependence  of  the  English  Chaucer,  14th  century,  on  learning  and  litera- 
ture of  Italian  origin  is  well  known.  In  the  late  16th  century  the  name  of 
Shakespeare  once  more  reminds  us  of  Italian  influence  on  England.  Aside 
from  the  many  plays  which  are  Italian  in  scene  or  story,  all  those  of  classical 
subjects  (borrowed  from  Plutarch)  point  in  the  same  direction.  In  the  17th 
century,  the  English  Milton  owed  to  his  Italian  travels  and  studies  the  classical 
coloring  and  allusions  of  his  poems.  His  French  contemporaries,  Molitire, 
Corneille,  and  Racine,  owe  to  the  ancients  their  literary  inspiration.  And  here, 
as  always  in  modern  history,  a  classical  inspiration  points  to  an  Italian  influ- 
ence. In  the  18th  century  the  English  Dr.  Johnson  pronounced  the  "Courtier," 
by  Count  Castiglione,  the  friend  of  Raphael,  to  be  still  the  most  perfect  book 
on  manners  and  good  breeding. 

Soon  after  1500  the  employment  of  Italian  artists  and  the  prevalence 
of  Italian  fashions  in  Northern  Europe  led  to  the  overthrow  of  Gothic  archi- 


THE    ITALIAN     RENAISSANCE, 


2ir 


lecture  in  favor  of  the  style  of  the  "  Renaissance,"  a  word  applied  equally  to  the 
architecture,  to  the  literary  spirit,  and  general  civilization  of  Italy  at  this  time.  In 
the  Renaissance  style  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  were  built  the  famous  palace 
facades  of  Heidelberg,  the  Escurial  Palace  near  Madrid,  the  Palace  of  the 
Tiouvre  in  Paris,  and  St.  Paul's  in  London.     Observe  in  illustrations  of  these 


St.  Petor's  at  Rome,  begun  by  Pope  Julias  II.  in  1506.    The  Vatican  Palace  on  the  right. 


buildings,  for  instance  in  St.  Peter's  or  in  the  Louvre  (under  modern  French 
history),  the  revival  of  classic  Greek  forms  as  used  in  the  ornament  of  the  Roman 
ruins  of  Italy.  The  streets  of  every  modern  city,  in  which  the  Renaissance  style 
is  still  general,  offer  abundant  ocular  evidence  of  the  long-continued  dominance 
of  Italian  influence  on  history. 

Italy's  Weakness. — But  while  this  civilization  was  spreading  by  a  thou- 
sand channels  over  Northern  Europe,  France,  Germany  and  Spain  were  engaged 
in  the  effort  to  appropriate  and  rule  over  the  territories  in  which  so  much 
wealth,  luxury,  and  cultivation  were  concentrated.  For  the  Italian  states 
boasted  all  the  features  of  civilization  excepting  a  physically  strong  military 
power.  In  this  regard,  the  coarser  European  nations  were  all  more  or  less 
superior.  Thus  the  beginning  of  modern  history  finds  Italy  becoming  the 
battle-ground  of  the  North.  To  the  greed  and  ambition  of  other  countries 
her  later  misfortunes  must  be  attributed,  although  these  warlike  expeditions 

10 


218 


ITALY. 


attested  her  superiority,  and  served,  by  closer  contact  of  foreign  nations  with 
her,  to  increase  her  influence.      Moreover,  highly  developed  civilization  had 

brought  its  ovi^n  corruptions  with 
it.  Human  selfishness,  vice,  and 
violence  were  not  lacking  to  mar 
and  spot  the  picture  of  her  excel- 
lence and  her  perfections.  Within 
the  limits  of  this  single  country 
were  concentrated  and  prefigured 
not  only  the  luxury,  wealth  and 
culture,  but  also  the  diplomatic 
intrigues,  state  rivalries,  and  self- 
ish plotting  of  modern  times  in 
general.  In  good  and  in  bad  the 
Italy  of  1500  was  19th  century 
Europe  on  a  diminished  scale,  but 
with  more  highly  concentrated 
energies  and  more  pronounced 
expressi<m. 

The  versatility  and  refinement 
of  Italian  culture  are  illustrated  by 
an  anecdote  in  Vasari's  Lives  of  the 
Italian  Painters  (written  about  1550), 
of  a  monk  named  Fra  Glocondo.  This 
monk  was  at  once  painter,  architect, 
engineer,  philosopher,  theologian,  horticulturist,  and  man  of  letters.  As  man  of  letters, 
besides  being  an  excellent  Greek  scholar,  he  published  an  edition  of  Vitruvius,  the  ancient 
authority  on  architecture,  and  discovered  in  the  Paris  Library  the  greater  part  of  the  famous 
Letters  of  Pliny.  He  collected  ancient  inscriptions  throughout  Italy,  wrote. on  the  Commen- 
taries of  Csesar,  and  made  a  design  of  the  bridge  thrown  across  the  Rhine  by  this  Roman 
general.  As  architect,  4ie  was  employed  for  a  time  in  the  construction  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
As  engineer,  he  turned  the  course  of  the  river  Brenta,  which  was  filling  in  the  lagunes  of 
Venice,  and  so  preserved  this  city  from  niin.  The  anecdote  relates  to  his  skill  as  horti- 
culturist, as  exhibited  in  the  service  of  the  French  king,  Louis  Xn. 

"Fra  Glocondo  was  a  man  of  universal  attainment,  and,  in  addition  to  the  pursuits  above 
described,  he  found  pleasure  in  the  most  simple  occupations,  among  others,  in  agriculture  and 
gardening.  On  this  subject  the  Florentine,  Mcsser  Donate  Giannotti,  who  was  his  intimate 
friend  during  mauy  years  that  they  spent  together  in  France,  relates  that  Fra  Glocondo,  while 
they  were  thus  living  in  the  French  court,  once  reared  a  peach  tree  in  an  earthen  vase.  The 
little  tree  prospered  so  well,  and  was  loaded  with  such  a  large  quantity  of  fruit,  that  it  was  a 
marvel  to  behold.  Thereupon  he  was  one  day  advised  by  some  of  his  friends  to  set  it  in  a  place 
where  the  king  was  to  pass,  and  where  he  could  not  fail  to  see  it,  which  he  did.  But  it  happened 
that  certain  of  the  courtiers  came  by  flr^t,  and  these  men,  as  is  the  fiisluon  of  Buch  gentry, 


Literior  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 


POLITICAL    HISTORY.  219 

gathered  all  the  fruit  off  the  little  tree,  to  the  great  displeasure  of  Fra  Giocondo,  and  what 
they  could  not  eat  they  scattered  along  the  whole  length  of  the  street.  The  matter  coming  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  king,  he  amused  himself  for  a  time  over  the  jest  with  his  courtiers,  but 
then  returning  thanks  to  the  monk  for  what  he  had  done,  his  Majesty  caused  a  gift  of  such 
value  to  be  presented  to  him  that  Fra  Giocondo  was  consoled." 

This  story  illustrates  the  refinement  of  Italian  feeling  which  selected  such  a  present  as  one 
best  worthy  of  a  king,  and  also  the  inferior  cultivation  of  Northern  Europe  at  this  time,  when 
French  courtiers  had  so  little  sensibility  as  to  destroy  the  gift.  Notwithstanding  the  manifold 
talents  and  knowledge  of  Fra  Giocondo,  he  is  by  no  means  one  of  the  best  known  examples 
of  Italian  versatility.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  at  once  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  civil  and 
military  engineer,  anatomist,  musician,  poet  and  author  ;  and  many  other  similar  cases  could 
be  given. 

POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF   ITALY  ABOUT    1500. 

Naples  (Southern  Italy,  below  the  States  of  the  Church)  and 
Sicily,  had  a  history  independent  of  the  Civic  States  of  Northern 
and  Central  Italy.  When  Charles  of  Anjou  (pp.  162,  194)  had  de- 
feated, in  South  Italy,  the  Hohenstaufen  regent  Manfred,  1266, 
and  the  Hohenstaufen  heir  Conradin,  1268 — the  latter,  who  was  be- 
headed in  Naples,  bequeathed  Sicily  to  the  Spanish  House  of  Aragon. 
His  half-uncle,  Manfred,  was  related  to  this  House  by  marriage. 

Sicily  was  thus  transmitted,  after  the  revolt  of  the  Sicilian 
Vespers,  1282  (p.  194),  to  a  branch  line  of  the  House  of  Aragon, 
and  was  then  reunited  with  the  Aragonese  line  in  1409. 

Joanna  II.  of  Naples,  with  whom  the  Neapolitan  Line  of  Anjou 
ended  in  1433,  had  adopted  successively  as  her  heirs,  firet,  the 
Second  Line  of  Anjou  (p.  198)  ;  and,  second,  the  Aragonese  princes. 
In  the  dispute  which  consequently  arose,  the  Second  Line  of  Anjou 
succeeded  in  obtaining  Provence,  while  the  Aragonese  claimants 
established  a  collateral  line  in  Naples.  But  the  Second  House  of 
Anjou  maintained  its  claim' to  Naples,  contesting  the  validity  of  the 
second  adoption,  and  transmitted  this  claim  with  Provence,  Anjou, 
and  Maine  (p.  206)  to  the  French  crown  under  Louis  XL 

Charles  VIII.,  his  son,  undertook  to  establish  this  claim  and 
conquer  Naples.  He  was  incited  to  this  campaign  by  Ludovico 
Moro,  ruler  of  Milan  (famous  as  the  patron  of  the  great  painter 
Leonardo  da  Vinci).     Ludovico  wished  to  supplant  his  nephew,  for 


220  ITALY. 

whom  he  was  regent.  In  this  intrigue  he  was  resisted  by  his 
nephew's  wife,  and  her  father,  the  King  of  Naples.  War  with 
Naples  and  revolution  in  Milan  were  impending.  To  forestall  this 
danger  he  resorted  to  the  French. 

Hence  the  Italian  Campaign  of  Charles  VIII.  The  French 
king  marched  an  army  through  Italy,  1494,  to  Naples,  and  the 
king,  Ferdinand  II.,  fled  to  Sicily.  The  rapid  success  of  the 
French  caused  a  general  coalition  of  the  Italian  states,  and  Charles 
VIII.  returned  with  difficulty  to  France,  leaving  part  of  his  army 
behind.  This  was  soon  conquered  by  Ferdinand  IL,  assisted  by 
Spanish  infantry,  under  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  furnished  by  Ferdi- 
nand the  Catholic  of  Spain. 

French  Claims  on  Naples  and  Milan. — AVhen  Charles 
VIII.  died,  in  1498,  his  successor,  Louis  XII.,  of  the  new  line  of 
Valo is- Orleans,  revived  the  claim  to  Naples,  and  added  a  claim  to 
Milan.  His  grandmother  had  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Vis- 
conti  rulers  of  Milan,  some  time  extinct.  Both  claims  represent 
the  ambition  of  the  new  French  monarchy  to  show  its  prowess, 
to  win  new  sources  of  revenue  and  rich  possessions  in  the 
South. 

In  1499  Louis  XII.  invaded  Italy,  seized  Milan,  and  then 
allied  himself  with  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  of  Spain  for  conquest  of 
Naples  in  partnership.  This  was  effected  in  1501.  A  quarrel  arose 
as  to  the  division  of  the  conquered  territory.  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova 
then  expelled  the  French,  and  Naples  (all  South  Italy  below  the 
States  of  the  Church)  with  Sicily  now  belonged  to  Spain. 

A  turning  point  in  history  is  marked  by  the  French  occu- 
pation of  Milan  in  1499,  and  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Naples  in 
1501,  the  beginning  of  a  rivalry  between  France  and  Spain  for 
ascendency  in  Italy.  Both  had  contested  Naples,  the  rich  state  of 
the  South.  Both  were  soon  to  contest  for  Milan,  the  richest  prov- 
ince of  the  North.  Thus  does  the  year  1500  once  more  reveal  itself 
as  a  point  which  cannot  be  jmssed  without  a  description  of  the 
power  of  Spain. 


POLITICAL    HISTORY.  221 

Hap  study.— Italy  under  the  Roman  Empire,  p.  116;  under  the  Ostrogoths,  p.  140. 
The  Lombards  succeeded  the  Ostrogoths  in  the  6th  century,  with  a  short  intervening  period 
of  Byzantine  rule,  p.  147.  Italy  under  Charlemagne,  p.  154;  under  Otto  the  Great  and  the  Ger- 
man emperors,  p.  156. 

For  Sicily  compare  these  last  two  maps.  On  the  first  it  has  the  Byzantine  color,  on  the 
second,  the  Arab.    Normans  in  Sicily,  p.  182. 

Italy  in  the  12th  century,  p.  182  ;  still  a  part  of  the  "  Germanic  "  Empire.  Italy  in  the  13th 
century,  before  1254,  was  also  under  Hohenstaufen  rule  in  Naples  and  Sicily. 

On  map  for  Europe  about  1400,  p.  200,  see  Pisa,  Venice,  Genoa,  Milan,  Mantua,  Padua, 
Ferrara,  Bologna,  Florence,  Siena,  Perugia. 

For  Venetian  possessions  in  the  Levant,  see  color  of  Venice  in  the  "Morea"  or  Pelopon- 
nesus, same  map.  It  became  a  Venetian  possession  somewhat  later  than  the  Fourth  Cru- 
sade.   For  Urbino,  see  map  for  Europe  about  1550,  under  Charles  the  Fifth. 

Anjous  in  Naples  and  Aragonese  in  Sicily,  see  p.  200.  Second  Line  of  Anjou  in  Provence, 
see  p.  200. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  ITALIAN  AND  PAPAL  HISTORY. 

FIRST  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  civilized  peoples  were  there  in  Italy  before  the  foundation  of  Rome  ?     (Pp.  76,  77.) 

How  many  centuries  of  Italian  history  are  covered  by  the  history  of  Rome  from  its  founda- 
tion until  a.  d  476? 

What  Germanic  kingdom  does  this  date  recall  ?    (P.  146.) 

When  did  Theodoric  the  Great  lead  the  Germanic  East-Goths  into  Italy  ?    (P.  146.) 

When  did  the  generals  of  Justinian  expel  the  East-Goths  ?    (P.  146.) 

Who  was  Justinian  ?    (P.  135.) 

When  did  the  Germanic  Lombards  replace  the  Byzantine  power  in  Italy  (with  exception 
of  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  ?    (P.  147.) 

Who  expelled  the  Lombards  from  the  Exarchate  at  a  later  time,  soon  after  they  occupied 
it?    (Pp.  148,150.) 

What  became  of  the  Exarchate  ? 

Who  overthrew  the  Lombard  rule  of  Italy  ?    (P.  154.) 

How  was  Italy  affected  by  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  ?    (P.  155.) 

What  was  its  condition  after  extinction  of  the  line  of  Lothair  ?  Ans,  Its  throne  was  con- 
tested by  various  claimants. 

Who  reunited  it  with  the  territorial  empire  founded  by  Charlemagne  ?    (P.  157.) 

How  was  this  territorial  empire  diminished  under  Otto  the  Great  ?  How  enlarged  ? 
(Compare  pp.  154, 157.) 

What  were  the  relations  between  the  emperors  and  popes  of  the  10th  century  ?  Ans.  Gen- 
erally harmonious. 

When  did  the  emperors  and  popes  begin  to  be  at  variance  ?    (P.  159.) 

Were  the  Imperial  territorial  rights  over  Italy  then  contested  ?     Am.  No. 

When  did  Italy  begin  to  shake  off  the  rule  of  the  emperors  ?    (P.  161.) 

When  was  she  entirely  freed  from  their  influence  ?    (P.  162.) 


ITALY. 

SECOND  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  great  Pope  of  the  5th  century  Baved  Rome  from  destruction  ?    (P.  145.) 

What  great  Pope  lived  about  600  ?    (P.  149.) 

What  people  was  Christianized  at  this  time  ?    (P.  149.) 

What  Pope  gave  sanction  to  the  Carlovingian  line  ?    (P.  150.) 

What  great  Pope  crowned  Charlemagne  ?    (P.  154.) 

Who  was  the  most  learned  man  in  Europe  about  1000  ?  Ans.  Pope  Sylvester  11.  What 
monarchs  had  he  served  as  tutor  when  a  monk  ?  (Pp.  158, 180.)  What  country  became  Chris- 
tian in  his  pontificate  ?    (P.  158.) 

What  date  fixes  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.  ?    (P.  160.) 

What  date  fixes  the  time  of  Urban  11.  ?    (P.  184.) 

What  event  fixes  the  time  of  Alexander  III.  ?    Ans.  The  battle  of  Legnano. 

When  was  it  ?    Am.  1176. 

What  date  fixes  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  ?    (P.  191.) 

What  mission  was  promoted  by  this  Pope  ?    (P.  168.) 

What  date  fixes  the  time  of  Boniface  VIII.?    Ans.  The  jubilee  of  1300. 

What  change  of  residence  removed  the  Popes  for  a  time  from  Italy  ?    (P.  201.) 

What  was  the  fate  of  most  of  the  Popes  in  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  ? 
(P.  121.) 

About  how  many  years  between  Pope  St.  Leo  the  Great  and  Pope  St.  Gregory  the  Great  ? 
Between  Pope  St.  Gregory  the  Great  and  Pope  St.  Leo  HI.  ?  Between  Pope  St.  Leo  III.  and 
Sylvester  11.  ?  Between  Sylvester  II.  and  St.  Gregory  VII.  ?  Between  St.  Gregory  VII.  and 
Urban  II.  (using  the  single  dates  already  fixed)  ?  Between  Urban  II.  and  Alexander  HI.? 
Between  Alexander  III.  and  Innocent  III  ?    Between  Innocent  m.  and  Boniface  VIII.  ? 


THIRD    REVIEW   LESSON". 

What  year  precedes  by  three  years  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.  and  by  thirteen  years  the 
pontificate  of  Leo  X.  ?    Ans.  The  year  1500. 

How  does  this  year  relate  to  the  dates  for  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Naples  ?    The  French 
occupation  of  Milan  ?    (P.  220.) 

In  what  year  was  begun  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  ?    (P.  217.) 

What  famous  works  of  art  were  begun  in  1508?    Ans.  The  ceiling  frescoes  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel  by  Michael  Angelo,  and  the  wall  paintings  of  the  Vatican  by  Raphael, 

What  great  wall-painting  preceded  these  works  by  just  ten  years  ?    Ans.  The  Last  Supper, 
in  Milan,  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 

What  is  therefore  its  date  ? 

In  what  year  was  begun  the  famous  Vatican  Collection  of  Antique  Statuary  ?    Ans.  In  the 
year  St.  Peter's  was  begun.    (See  note  on  the  Belvedere  Apollo,  at  p.  34.) 

What  Pope  made  Michael  Angelo  architect  of  St.  Peter's  ?    Ans.  Pope  Paul  HI.,  in  1546. 

What  is  the  greatest  modem  statue  ?    Ans.  The  "  Moses,"  by  Michael  Angelo,  in  San 
Pietro  in  Vinculi  in  Rome,  the  tomb  of  Julius  II. 

What  Pope  caused  the  "  Last  Judgment "  to  be  painted  on  the  end  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel 
by  Michael  Angelo  ?    Ans.  Paul  HI.,  in  1534. 

When  did  the  Christian  Crusaders  leave  Syria  ?    (P- 191-) 

How  soon  after  did  the  Ottoman  Turks  enter  Europe  ?    Ans.  In  1356.    (See  p.  201.) 


POLITICAL     HISTORY.  223 

Where  were  the  Popes  residing  at  this  time  ?    (P.  201.) 

What  necessity  especially  redemanded  their  presence  in  Italy  ?  Ans.  The  mission  of  com- 
bating Mohammedan  encroachment  on  Europe. 

What  was  the  main  political  activity  of  the  Popes  of  the  15th  century  ?  Atis.  Organizing 
resistance  to  the  Turks.  « 

Who  was  canonized  for  the  heroic  defence  of  Belgrade  in  this  century  ?  Ans.  St.  John 
Capistran.    (See  history  of  the  Arabs  and  Turks,  Book  III.) 

What  proves  the  urgency  of  the  peril  ?  Ans.  Toward  the  close  of  the  15th  century  the 
Turks  occupied  Otranto,  the  key  to  Southern  Italy,  and  the  Sultan  proposed  to  feed  his  horse 
on  the  altar  of  the  old  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 


FOURTH  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  success  attended  the  resistance  to  the  Turks  ?  Ans.  They  were  prevented  from  con- 
quering any  portion  of  Latin  Christendom  but  Hungary. 

When  did  the  larger  part  of  Hungary  fall  into  their  hands  ?  Ans.  In  1526,  when  religious 
schism  had  begun  to  weaken  the  energies  of  Europe. 

Who  then  inherited  the  rest  of  Hungary  (with  Bohemia),  and  ultimately  gained  the  whole? 
Ans.  The  House  of  Austria. 

Who  was  emperor  in  1500  ?    (P.  167.) 

To  what  House  did  he  belong  ? 

When  did  he  become  emperor  ?    (P.  167.) 

What  marriage  had  he  previously  contracted  ?    (P.  206.) 

Soon  after  what  battle?    (P.  205.) 

What  rivalry  was  founded  by  that  marriage  ?    (P.  206.) 

Who  was  the  son  of  Mary  of  Burgundy  and  Maximilian  ?    Ans.  Philip,  Duke  of  Austria. 

Whom  did  he  marry  ?    Ans.  Joanna,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain. 

Who  sprang  from  this  marriage  ?    Ans.  The  great  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth. 

When  was  he  born  ?  Ans.  In  1500.  What  rivalry  did  he  inherit  from  Spain  ?  (P.  220.) 
What  rivalry  did  he  inherit  from  Austria  ?    (P.  206.) 

What  resulted  from  this  succession  of  marriage  alliances  ?  Ans.  The  Spanish  monarchy 
became  the  most  powerful  in  Europe. 

What  history  therefore  must  introduce  the  history  of  the  16th  century  ? 

What  countries  are  involved  in  an  account  of  the  period  of  Charles  the  Fifth  ?  Ans.  Spain, 
because  he  was  its  king.  Germany,  because  he  became  its  emperor.  France,  because  Louis  XI. 
had  seized  Picardy  and  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy  from  the  Burgundian  dukedom,  and  because 
the  Emperors  still  claimed  the  right  to  appoint  the  Dukes  of  Milan.  Italy,  because  it  became 
the  battle-ground  of  French  and  Spaniards.  England,  because  this  country  was  sought  in 
alliance  by  the  two  rivals.    Turkey,  because  the  Turks  were  in  Austrian  Hungary. 

What  European  nations  are  not  involved  in  the  general  history  of  the  16th  century  ?  Ans. 
The  nations  of  Scandinavia  (Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden),  and  Russia. 

When  did  Scandinavia  enter  the  "  game  of  nations  "  ?  Ans.  In  the  17th  century,  with  the 
rise  of  Sweden. 

When  did  Russia  enter  into  general  history  ?  Ans.  In  the  18th  century,  time  of  Peter  the 
Great. 


SPAIN, 

BEFORE  AND  AFTEE  A.  D.  1500. 


SPAIN    BEFORE    1500. 

CeltO-Tberian  Period.— The  Spanish  Peninsula  was  inhabited  in  pre- 
historic times,  partly  by  Celts,  partly  by  Iberians.  Nothing  exact  is  known  of 
the  Iberian  population.  The  Basques  of  the  Pyrenees  are  its  descendants. 
Their  language  does  not  offer  points  of  contact  or  comparison  with  any  other 
speech. 

Phcenieian  and  Greek  Colonies.— The  coasts  of  Spain  were  colo- 
nized many  centuries  before  Christ  by  Phoenicians  from  Syria  and  from  Car- 
thage.  Cadiz  (Gades)  was  an  old  Phoenician  colony,  and  silver  was  exported 
in  such  quantity  from  it  that  the  Phoenician  ships  are  said  to  have  added  to 
their  cargo  chains  and  anchors  of  this  metal.  There  were  also  Greek  towns  on 
the  Northeastern  coast  after  b.  c.  600. 

Roman  Period. — After  the  Second  Punic  War  was  ended,  the  Roman 
Republic  rapidly  gained  control  of  the  country.  When  the  Roman  Empire 
replaced  the  Republic,  Spain  was  already  quite  thoroughly  Romanized,  and  its 
language^  like  French  and  Italian,  still  exhibits  this  decidedly  Latin  origin. 

Visigothie  Period.— Spain  became,  after  a.  d.  415,  a  portion  of  the  state 
of  the  Germanic  West-Goths  (they  were  confined  to  Spain  by  Clovis  in  507), 
but  the  Sue  vie  northwest  comer  of  the  country  was  not  conquered  by  the 
West-Goths  till  585. 

In  711  the  Mohammedan  Arabs  (and  Moors  of  North  Africa)  crossed 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  under  Tarik.  The  entire  kingdom  was  conquered  from 
the  last  West-Goth  king,  Roderick,  in  a  single  battle.  The  Christians  main- 
tained their  independence  only  in  the  strip  of  country  under  the  Pyrenees 
(Asturia).  From  this  foothold,  after  Charlemagne  had  forced  the  Arabs  back 
to  the  Ebro,  the  Spaniards  began  to  gain  ground  on  the  Mohammedans. 


SPAI  N    BEFORE     1500. 


225 


Portiou  of  the  Alhambra. 
{Palace  of  the  Moorish  kings  at  Granada.) 


The  whole  medieval  history  of  Spain  is  taken  ap  in  this  struggle. 
The  nature  of  the  Spanish  people  developed  in  its  long  contest  with  the  infidels 
a  peculiarly  zealous,  enthusiastic,  and 
warlike  spirit. 

Influence  of  the  Spanish 
Arabs. — Notwithstanding  the  an- 
tagonism of  the  Spanish  Arabs  and 
Spanish  Christians  there  was  much 
intercourse  between  them.  The  con- 
tact between  the  subject  Spaniards 
and  the  Mohammedans,  in  territory 
ruled  by  the  latter,  involved  a  mixt- 
ure of  civilizations.  The  Arabs  had 
especially  devoted  themselves  to  the 
technic  arts,  to  medicine,  chemistry, 
and  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  these 
departments  their  influence  through 
Spain  on  Europe  was  marked.  The 
numerals  introduced  in  this  way,  and  called  Arabic,  were  derived  from  the 
Hindoos,  for  the  Arab  conquests  extended  to  India.  Many  of  the  Greek 
authors,  Aristotle  among  them,  were  made  known  to  the  Middle  Ages  by  Latin 
translations  from  the  Arabic. 

The  justly  vaunted  Arabian  civilization  was  Byzantine  in  its  origin,  and  was 
borrowed  in  the  provinces  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  North  Africa,  conquered  from  East-Rome 
about  640  (Mohammed  died  632). 

Political  History. — In  medieval  Spain  there  developed  after  Charle 
magne  five  or  six  petty  Christian  states,  but  the  whole  number  on  the  Penin- 
sula was  finally  reduced  to  four — the  gradually  decreasing  Moorish  state  of 
Granada,  Portugal,  Aragon,  and  Castile,  These  two  last  kingdoms  were  united 
by  the  marriage  of  their  rulers,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  Isabella,  in  1469. 
From  this  union,  and  from  the  consequent  conquest  of  Granada  in  1492,  dates 
the  modern  national  state  of  Spain. 

The  Spanish  Inquisition.— An  untemporizing  character  was  developed  in  Spanish 
Christianity  by  a  spirit  of  national  hostility  to  foreign  Arab  and  Moorish  rule.  The  Spanish 
Inquisition  was  first  established  as  a  political  engine  against  the  disloyalty  of  those  Moors 
who  had  made  the  sham  of  a  Christian  conversion  a  cloak  to  their  disloyalty  to  the  state, 
in  which  they  continued  to  live  and  intrigue  after  conquest.  Undoubtedly  its  terrors  have 
been  exaggerated  and  its  procedure  more  or  less  unjustly  stigmatized.  But  it  is  certain  that 
its  introduction  by  the  Spanish  monarchs  was  antagonized  by  the  protests  and  efforts  of 


226  SPAIN. 

the  Popes,  as  being  a  secular  interference  with  affairs  of  the  Church.  The  first  establishment 
of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  in  the  15th  century,  led  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  to  sever  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  the  Court  of  Spain,  and  the  Inquisitors  of  Toledo  were  excommunicated  by  Pope 
LeoX. 

Map  Study.— Spain  after  the  Punic  Wars,  p.  92 ;  under  the  Roman  Empire,  p.  116 ;  under 
the  Visigoths  or  West-Goths,  p.  140 ;  under  the  Arabs,  with  Charlemagne's  "  Spanish  March" 
and  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Leon,  p.  154.  Rise  of  other  Christian  states,  p.  156.  Develop- 
ment of  same  in  the  12th  century,  p.  182.  Portugal,  Castile,  Aragon,  Granada,  about  1400, 
p.  200. 

.        QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE  ON    MEDIEVAL   SPAIN. 

Date  the  end  of  the  Second  Punic  War.    (P.  93.) 

The  siege  of  Numantia.    (P.  97.) 

The  beginning  of  the  Roman  Empire.    (P.  109.) 

The  century  of  the  German  invasions.    (P.  143.) 

The  expulsion  of  the  West-Goths  from  France.    (P.  148.) 

The  century  of  Mohammed.    (P.  222.) 

The  overthrow  of  the  Spanish  Visigoths.    (P.  150.) 

The  victory  of  Charles  Martel  at  Poitiers.    (P.  150.) 

The  Spanish  conquest  of  Charlemagne  (approximately  by  the  round  number  of  his  coronation 
at  Rome.    (P.  154.) 

The  union  of  Aragon  and  Castile.    (P.  225.) 

The  conquest  of  Granada,    (P.  225.) 

In  whose  reign  may  England  be  considered  a  modern  national  state  ?    (.P.  207.) 

What  reign  marks  the  final  consolidation  of  modern  France  ?    (Pp.  205,  206.) 

When  did  Louis  XI.  die  ?    (P.  201.) 

How  long  after  occurred  the  conquest  of  Granada  ? 

When  did  Henry  VII.  become  king  of  England  ?   Am.  1485. 

How  long  after  occurred  the  conquest  of  Granada  ? 

To  what  state  did  Sicily  belong  in  the  year  1500  ?    Since  when  ?    (P.  220.) 

To  what  state  did  Naples  belong  one  year  later  ? 

To  what  state  did  Sardinia,  Majorca,  and  Minorca  belong  in  1500  ?  Ans.  To  Spain  through 
Aragon  ;  acquired  in  the  13th  century. 


MARITIME  DISCOVERIES  AND   COLONIAL  EMPIRE  OF  SPAIN. 

The  use  of  the  magnetic  needle,  which  assisted  the  discovery  of  new 
countries  by  facilitating  long  voyages,  came  into  general  use  through  Flavio 
Gioja  (Gioya),  native  of  Southern  Italy,  at  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
Exploring  expeditions  of  the  Portuguese  along  the  coast  of  Africa  began  under 
Prince  Heniy  the  Navigatx)r.  At  his  death,  in  1460,  they  had  reached  Sierra 
Leone.     Bartholomew  Dia/  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1486. 

Italians,  and  especially  Genoese,  took  part  in  these  voyages,  because 


MARITIME    DISCOVERIES    OF    SPAIN. 


2^7 


Spanish  Ship  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 
{From  a  print  of  tJie  time.) 


of  the  advantage  of  a  sea  route  to  the  East  Indies.  Since  the  Crusades  the 
Genoese  had  had  trading  posts  in  the  Crimea,  which,  by  way  of  the  Don,  the 
Volga,  and  the  Caspian,  kept  open 
a  route  to  the  far  East.  These 
trading  posts  were  broken  up  by 
the  Ottoman  Turks  when  they 
made  the  Crimea  a  province  in 
1475.  Christopher  Columbus,  a 
Genoese  mariner,  therefore  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  reaching  the 
same  destination  by  sailing  to  the 
west.  His  idea  was  drawn  from 
Florentine  geographers  and  astron- 
omers, who  were  again  dependent 
for  their  knowledge  on  the  Alex- 
andrine geographer,  Ptolemy,  of 
the  2d  century  a.  d.  Ptolemy  was 
acquainted  with  the  rotundity  of 
the  earth  although  he  had  aban- 
doned the  earlier  teaching  of  Alex- 
andrine astronomers  as  to  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun 
(p.  68). 

Columbus  applied  for  assistance  to  the  Portuguese  court,  which  refused  it. 
He  then  had  recourse  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  generosity  of  the  latter 
equipped  the  three  vessels  with  which  he  reached  the  Bahamas  in  1493.  Co- 
lumbus believed  that  he  had  reached  a  portion  of  the  East  Indies  of  which  he 
was  in  search,  nor  did  his  later  voyages  change  this  idea.  In  a  second  voyage, 
1493-1496,  he  discovered  Jamaica  and  some  of  the  lesser  Antilles.  On  his  third 
voyage  he  reached  the  main  land  of  South  America,  1498.  Sebastian  Cabot,  a 
Venetian  mariner  in  the  service  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  discovered  the  coast 
of  Labrador  in  1497  and  sailed  along  the  shore  of  North  America  as  far  as 
Florida. 

Spanish  Colonies. — It  was  not  till  more  than  a  century  later  that  the 
discovery  of  North  America  was  utilized  for  settlements  (the  Spanish  Colony  of 
Florida  excepted).  The  first  colony  on  the  main  land  of  America  was  founded 
by  Balboa,  a  Castilian  Spaniard,  in  1513,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Colum- 
bus had  examined  this  territory  (together  with  the  shores  of  Central  America) 
on  his. fourth  voyage  in  1504.  Balboa  obtained  the  first  information  of  Peru. 
The  great  significance  of  the  American  discoveries  for  Spain  begins  with  the 


228  SPAIN. 

immense  riches  gained  by  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Fernando  Cortez,  after 
1520,  and  of  Peru,  by  Francisco  Pizarro,  after  1531. 

Pope  Alexander  VI.  fixed,  in  1493,  a  line  of  demarcation,  running  from 
north  to  south,  370  leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  between  the  Span- 
iards and  the  Portuguese,  giving  to  the  former  all  discoveries  west,  to  the  lat- 
ter all  discoveries  east  of  this  line.  Thus,  besides  Brazil,  the  East  Indian  and 
African  discoveries  were  secured  to  Portugal. 

The  Portuguese  navigator  Vasco  de  Gama  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  reached  India  in  1498,  and  a  Portuguese  commercial  empire 
grew  up,  in  consequence  of  this  voyage,  along  the  shores  of  Africa,  of  India, 
and  Ceylon,  which  opened  relations  after  1517  with  China  and  Japan. 

The  Portuguese  Magellan,  in  the  employ  of  Spain,  sailed  through  the 
straits  named  after  liim,  reaching  the  Philippines  in  1521.  Here  he  was  slain 
in  a  combat  with  the  natives,  and  his  companions  completed  the  first  voyage 
around  the  world. 


CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE   MARITIME   DISCOVERIES. 

.  f  Sierrra  Leone A.  D.  1460 

,5  I*  I  Cape  of  GoodHope **  1486 

^  I  I  Bahamas *'  1492 

L  American  Continent  and  India , "  1498 

^  f  First  American  Colony  of  Spain "  1513 

^   ^  ^  Spanish  Conquest  of  Mexico  after "  1520 

"^  O  I  Spanish  Conquest  of  Peru  after "  1531 


REIGN   OF  CHARLES  V.;    BORN    1500,  DIED    1558. 

GENEALOGY   OF  CHARLES  V. 

Maximilian  of  Austria  =  Mary  of  Bnrgundy.     Ferdinand  the  Catholic  =  Isabella  of  Castile. 
Philip  I.  =  Joanna. 

Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile  had  con- 
tinued after  mamage  to  rule  their  kingdoms  as  separate  sovereigns. 


REIGN    OF    CHARLES    V.  229 

Their  daughter  and  heir,  Joanna,  married  Philip,  Duke  of  Austria, 
the  son  of  Maximilian  and  Mary  of  Burgundy  (p.  206).  She  be- 
came insane  soon  after  the  birth  of  her  son  Charles,  in  1500.  Isa- 
bella died  in  1504.  Philip,  who  then  assumed  the  regency  of  Castile, 
died  a  year  later,  and  Ferdinand  became  regent  in  Castile  for  bis 
grandson  and  heir  till  his  own  death  in  1516. 

Cardinal  Ximines  was  the  most  important  person  in  Spain  at 
this  time.  His  wise  administration  really  accomplished  the  perma- 
nent union  of  Aragon  and  Castile.  It  was  he  who  had  induced  the 
Castilian  estates  to  accept  the  regency  of  Ferdinand,  and  who  pre- 
served order  till  the  arrival  of  the  new  monarch. 

Charles  I.  of  Spain  had  been  educated  in  the  Netherlands, 
spoke  Dutch,  and  retained  through  life  many  peculiarities  of  the 
Burgundian  Netherlander.  His  title  in  1516  was  Charles  I.  of 
Spain.  But  this  inheritance  involved  the  Spanish  possessions  already 
gained  or  soon  to  be  acquired  in  America,  together  with  Majorca, 
Minorca,  Sardinia,  Sicily  and  Naples  (p.  220).  In  1519  the  death 
of  Maximilian  of  Austria,  his  paternal  grandfather,  added  to  these 
possessions  the  "  Burgundian  "  inheritance  (p.  199)  and  the  Austrian 
territories  (p.  164).  These  last  included,  since  the  time  of  Budolf 
of  Hapsburg,  territories  in  Alsace  and  South  Baden,  beside  Austria 
proper,  with  the  Tyrol,  Styria,  Carinthiq,,  and  Carniola.  The  "  Bur- 
gundian" inheritance  included  the  "Franche-Comte"  and  the 
Netherland  Provinces  (modern  Belgium  and  Holland),  with  claims 
on  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy  and  Picardy,  which  had  been  confis- 
cated by  Louis  XL  (p.  205).  But  there  was  something  still  to  be 
added  to  these  immense  possessions,  namely,  the  rights  and  powers 
of  the  Imperial  Title  (p.  154).  These  had  long  been  in  abeyance 
practically,  but  might  by  a  sovereign  sufficiently  powerful  be  again 
asserted. 

The  Imperial  power,  which  gave  Charles  I.  of  Spain  his  title 
of  Charles  V.,  was  not  inherited  from  Maximilian,  although  he  was 
the  preceding  Emperor.  This  title  was  in  the  gift  of  the  Electoral 
Princes  of  Germany   (p.  165).      It  was    not    necessary  that    the 


230 


SIXTEENTH     CENTURY, 


Charles  V. 
(Medal  of  his  time.) 


Emperor   should   be  a  German   (p.  157) ;    as   a   matter    of    fact, 
he  always  had  been.     But  there   were,  after  the  death  of  Maxi- 

mihan,  two  other  suitors  for  this 
distinction,  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  and  Francis  I.  of 
France  (who  succeeded  Louis 
XII.  in  1515).  The  chances  ap- 
peared to  be  in  favor  of  the  lat- 
ter sovereign.  One  considera- 
tion turned  the  scale  against 
him,  the  menacing  attitude  of 
the  Turks  (p.  223).  Austria 
was  the  natural  bulwark  of  Ger- 
many against  them,  and  the 
leadership  of  Germany  was 
therefore  intrusted  to  the  Haps- 
burg  ruler  of  Austria,  Burgundy,  Spain,  and  South  Italy. 

Charles  V.  was  only  nineteen  years  of  age.  He  was  thought  to 
be  of  feeble  capacity.  His  manners  and  appearance  gave  an  impres- 
sion of  awkwardness.  The  very  extent  of  his  possessions  appeared 
to  be  an  element  of  weakness,  and  the  electors  were  by  no  means 
aware  that  they  had  made  an  emperor  who  was  to  reassert  the  terri- 
torial pretensions  of  the  "  Holy  Roman  Empire"  of  Charlemagne 
and  Otto  the  Great.  During  this  reign  the  states  of  Germany  con- 
tinued to  retain  much  of  their  practical  independence,  but  they  were, 
notwithstanding,  overawed  and  dominated  by  the  weight  of  the 
emperor's  character,  the  power  of  his  diplomacy  and  of  his  enor- 
mous territorial  possessions. 

In  Italy  the  old  theory  of  the  "Empire''  (p.  157)  gave  a  turn 
to  history  which  determined  the  whole  later  destinies  of  this  country. 
Since  the  time  of  the  occupation  of  Naples  by  Ferdinand  the  Cath- 
olic, the  French  had  made  North  Italy  the  scene  of  their  campaigns. 
In  1512  they  lost  their  conquest  of  Milan  (made  in  1499).  They 
were  expelled  by  the  efforts  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  whose  whole  pontifi- 


REIGN     OF    CHARLES    V.  231 

cate  since  1503  had  been  devoted  to  this  task,  for  the  Popes  were 
the  guardians  of  ItaUan  independence.  But  in  1515,  the  year  of 
the  accession  of  Francis  I.,  this  French  king  reconquered  Milan 
after  the  brilliant  victory  of  Marignano  (Marinyano),  won  by  his 
Swiss  mercenaries  (pontificate  of  Leo  X.,  1513-1521). 

The  election  of  Charles  I.  of  Spain  as  Charles  V.  of  the  Empire 
transferred  the  rivalry  between  France  and  Spain,  which  had  begun 
in  the  contest  for  supremacy  in  South  Italy  (p.  220),  to  this  richest 
province  of  its  fertile  northern  valley.  The  Duchy  of  Milan  was 
the  key  to  the  rest  of  Italy,  and  hence  the  importance  attached  to 
its  possession.  The  Emperor  still  retained  the  legal  power  to  nom- 
inate its  Duke,  from  the  old  period  of  territorial  rights  over  Italy. 

Rivalry  of  France  and  Spain  in  Italy. — The  question  to  be 
decided,  by  force  of  arms,  whether  the  Emperor  could  sustain  his 
nominee  (a  member  of  the  Sforza  family,  to  which  Ludovico  Moro 
belonged),  was  now  a  question  whether  France  or  Spain  should  con- 
trol Italy.  For  two  entire  centuries  the  rivalry  between  France  and 
the  Hapsburgs  continued  to  furnish  the  most  important  material 
for  a  history  of  events  in  Europe  (as  opposed  to  a  history  of  civiliza- 
tion which  meanwhile  continued  to  radiate  from  its  Italian  centre). 
Therefore  let  it  be  remembered  that  this  rivalry  began  in  the  seizure 
of  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy  and  of  Picardy  in  1477,  by  Louis  XI. 
(p.  205),  whose  restitution-  was  demanded  by  Charles  V.,  as  taken 
from  the  inheritance  of  his  grandmother,  Mary  of  Burgundy; 
that  it  continued  in  the  disputed  claim  of  France  and  Spain  to 
Naples  in  1501,  and  culminated  in  the  rivalry  of  Charles  V.  and 
Francis  I.  for  the  Imperial  dignity  and  the  control  of  Milan. 
(Francis  I.  had  encouraged  revolts  against  the  new  monarchy  in 
Spain,  another  cause  of  quarrel.) 

Francis  refused  to  vacate  North  Italy.  The  generals  of 
Charles,  who  himself  had  returned  to  Spain,  expelled  the  French 
from  Milan  in  1521  and  1522.  The  pretensions  of  the  Empire 
to  Southeast  France  (p.  159)  were  now  revived,  for  although 
Charles  IV.  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia  had  made  the  French  Dauphin 


232  SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

his  vicar  in  these  provinces  (p.  166)  there  Avas  here  also  pretext  for 
war ;  but  the  invasion  of  these  territories  by  the  Spanish  forces  was 
unsuccessful. 

A  new  invasion  of  North  Italy  by  Francis  resulted  in  his 
defeat  at  Pavia,  1525.  He  was  made  captive  and  carried  prisoner 
to  Madrid.  To  secure  his  freedom  he  agreed  (Peace  of  Madrid)  to 
cede  the  French  Duchy  of  Burgundy,  to  abandon  claims  to  Milan, 
and  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom  ;  but,  alleging  compulsion,  he  reopened 
the  war  on  reaching  France. 

Pope  Clement  VII.  (1523-1534)  now  took  sides  with  the 
French ;  for  the  Spanish  ascendency  threatened  to  crush  Italy  under 
the  old  Imperial  pretensions.  This  led  to  the  sack  of  Eome,  in 
1527,  by  an  army  of  Germans  in  the  pay  of  Charles.  The  Emperor 
(in  Spain)  disavowed  responsibility  for  the  violence  of  his  agents, 
but  the  public  sentiment  of  Europe  forced  him  to  an  accommodation 
with  the  Pope,  wiio  then  crowned  him  at  Bologna  in  1530. 

Two  later  wars  with  France  did  not  reverse  the  general  results 
of  the  two  wars  between  1521  and  1529.  These  results  were  that 
Spain  became  mistress  of  North  Central  Italy  (Milan)  as  she  was 
already  mistress  of  Naples;  that  a  marriage,  alliance  between  a 
daughter  of  Charles  V.  and  Alesandro  Medici,  a  relative  of  Clem- 
ent VII.,  founded  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany,  which  replaced  the 
Florentine  Eepublic  after  1530.  The  only  important  independent 
state  in  Italy  after  1530  was  the  Republic  of  Venice,  which  con- 
tinued until  the  close  of  the  18tli  century  and  the  times  of  Bona- 
parte. The  small  dimensions  and  diplomatic  rivalries  of  the  Italian 
free  states,  in  which  modern  civilization  developed  its  earliest  and 
most  beautiful  flower,  did  not  permit  their  continued  existence  after 
the  rise  of  the  strong  national  monarchies  of  France  and  Spain. 
But  the  spread  of  Italian  culture  over  Europe  began  after  this  period, 
in  consequence  of  the  closer  relations  with  Italy,  to  be  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  development  of  Northern  civilization. 

Addition  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  to  the  Hapsburg 
Territories. — Between  the  first  and  second  wars  of  France  and 


REIGN     OF    CHARLES    V.  233 

Spain,  took  place,  in  1526,  the  battle  of  Mohacz,  in  Hungary,  be- 
tween the  Turks  and  Christians.  In  this  battle  the  young  king  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary  was  killed.  His  sister  and  heir  was  the  wife 
of  Ferdinand,  brother  of  the  Emperor,  his  regent  in  Austria.  It 
was  in  consequence  of  this  battle  that  these  countries  were  united 
with  the  Hapsburg  territories.  The  larger  part  of  Hungary  was, 
however,  held  by  the  Turks  for  a  century  and  a  half. 

In  1529  the  Turkish  Sultan,  Solyman  the  Great,  laid 
siege  to  Vienna,  which  by  valiant  resistance  preserved  itself  from 
capture  and  Germany  from  a  Turkish  invasion.  Charles  V.  now 
turned  his  efforts  against  the  Turks,  and  the  army  which  he  col- 
lected preserved  Germany  from  a  second  invasion  in  1532.  The 
Turks  retired  without  daring  to  encounter  his  forces. 

Expedition  to  Tunis. — The  Emperor  next  conducted  an 
expedition  to  Africa  against  the  Mohammedan  pirates  of  Tunis, 
and  freed  their  Christian  captives,  1535.  A  later  expedition  against 
Algiers  was  less  successful.  By  the  public  spirit  shown  in  these 
expeditions,  Charles  V.  secured  the  good  will  of  Christendom  in 
general.  Francis  I.,  on  the  other  hand,  made  alliances  with  the 
Infidels  in  his  two  later  wars  with  the  Spaniards,  which  damaged 
his  standing  in  his  own  time  and  in  later  history. 

Meantime  the  spread  of  the  Lutheran  movement  in  Ger- 
many had  already  resulted,  1525,  in  a  socialistic  outbreak — the 
"  Peasant  Wars " — which  cost  the  lives  of  a  hundred  thousand 
people.  The  communist  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists  in  North- 
west Germany  alarmed  the  supporters  of  morality  and  social 
order.  (The  Anabaptists  [rebaptizers]  were  named  from  their 
rebaptism  of  adults. )  Church  property  w^as  being  confiscated  by 
the  princes  of  North  Germany,  who  entered  into  the  "  Eeforma- 
tion"  as  a  business  speculation.  The  Hohenzollern  Grand-Master 
of  the  Teutonic  Knights  in  Prussia  (Northeast  Germany,  p.  168) 
transformed  himself  into  the  Lutheran  owner  of  the  province 
(held  as  a  fief  of  Poland)  in  1525. 

The  threatening  invasions  of  the  Turks  had  been  utilized  by  the 


234  SPAIN. 

Protestant  German  princes  as  a  means  to  their  own  independence. 


1 ;     ;        !  ) ; ;( olona  of  the  Expedition  against  Tunis.    Old  Tapestry  in  Madrid. 

Tlie  Emperor  liad  been  obliged  to  make  concessions  to  the  Protes- 
tants before  they  would  render  assistance  against  the  Turks^  but 


REIGN     OF    CHARLES     V .  235 

undertook,  after  1545,  to  forbid  the  farther  dissemination  of  anti- 
Catholic  tenets. 

This  led  to  the  Smalcaldian  "War  in  1546.  Its  name  is 
derived  from  a  league  of  the  Protestant  German  princes  formed  at 
vSmalcalden,  in  Saxony  (1530).  The  victory  of  Miihlberg,  1547, 
placed  the  most  important  Protestant  leader,  Frederick  of  Saxony,  in 
the  hands  of  the  Emperor,  and  Philip  of  Hesse  Avas  soon  after  made 
prisoner.  But  the  fortunes  of  war  were  turned  by  the  defection  of 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  who  had  been  made  Elector  of  this  State  by  the 
Emperor.     The  later  House  of  Saxony  is  descended  from  Maurice. 

The  Peace  of  Fassau,  1552,  left  the  religious  parties  about 
evenly  balanced  in  Germany.*  Certain  questions  relating  to  the 
]-estitution  of  confiscated  Church  property  were  left  open  for  future 
settlement. 

In  1556  the  Emperor,  at  this  time  in  the  Netherlands, 
formally  abdicated  and  transferred  the  government  of  his  pos- 
sessions to  his  brother  and  to  his  son.  He  secured  the  Impe- 
rial dignity  and  the  Austrian  possessions  to  his  l^rother 
Ferdinand,  who  founded  the  line  of  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs. 


*  Toleration  was  not  usual  with  the  Princes  of  either  confession.  The  religion  of  the 
ruler  generally  determined  the  religion  of  the  State,  Persecutions  were  common  on  both  sides 
throughout  the  Reformation  period,  and  it  is  beyond  dispute  that  they  were  set  in  motion  on 
both  sides  by  the  political  rulers  from  political  motives.  Francis  I.  and  eminently  Henry  II. 
his  successor,  who  bitterly  persecuted  the  Protestants  in  France,  as  openly  assisted  them  in 
Germany,  even  by  alliance  in  war.  Elizabeth  betrayed  the  cause  of  the  Protestant  Dutch  and 
persecuted  the  Jesuits  at  home,  openly  alleging  political  motives.  So  the  Lutherans  of  Den- 
mark expelled  the  Caivinists  from  the  kingdom  and  refused  to  harbor  the  Calvinists  who  fled 
from  France.  We  can  as  little  defend  religious  persecution  for  political  motives  as  for  religious 
reasons;  but  it  is  important  to  know  that  persecution  was  not  the  policy  of  the  Roman 
Church.  As  far  as  political  matters  are  concerned,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  Protestants  were 
the  innovators,  and  it  is  undeniable  that  their  cause  was  made  the  cover  of  political  factions 
from  the  moment  of  its  inception.  It  may  be  urged  that  in  the  case  of  the  sovereigns,  the  tol- 
erance practised  by  some  of  them  at  first,  notably  by  Charles  V.  for  over  twenty  years,  was  the 
result  of  religious  indifierence.  This  could  not  be  said,  however,  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
the  continued  mildness  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  towards  the  Protestants  as  individuals  is  a  well- 
authenticated  fact  of  history.  The  habit  of  confounding  the  policy  of  the  Roman  Church  with 
the  policy  of  certain  Catholic  sovereigns  is  not  unusual,  but  we  may  confidently  anticipate  the 
dissipation  of  this  error  as  the  truths  of  history  are  better  known. 


236 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 


He  secured  the  Burgundian,  Spanish,  and  Italian  inheritance, 
with  the  American  possessions,  to  his  son  PhiUp,  who  became, 
as  Philip  II.,  founder  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs.  Charles  V. 
died  two  years  later,  in  Spain. 

Ijast  Years  of  the  Emperor.—"  He  had  buried  himself  in  the  monastic  seclusion  of  the 
Convent  of  St.  Just,  in  Estramadura.  Here  he  wished  to  hide  in  solitude  the  greatness,  the 
ambition,  and  all  the  vast  projects  which  for  half  a  century  had  kept  Europe  in  a  state  of  alarm. 
His  pastimes  were  limited  to  occasional  rides  on  horseback,  to  the  cultivation  of  a  garden,  and 
mechanical  occupations.  He  had  a  passion  for  horology,  and  the  inability  to  make  two  time- 
pieces exactly  agree  is  said  to  have  drawn  from  him  the  reflection :  '  How  absurd  was  it,  then, 
to  attempt  the  establishment  of  uniformity  among  men  and  empires,  since  I  cannot  even  suc- 
ceed in  making  two  clocks  agree.' " 


PERIOD   OF   CHARLES  V. 


Important  features  of  general  European  history  during  the  time 

of  Charles  V.,  besides  the  mar- 
itime discoveries,  were  the  ad- 
vances made  in  astronomy,  the 
general  diffusion  of  the  art  of 
printing,  the  revolution  in 
warfare,  and  the  rise  of  the 
Protestants. 

The  discoveries  of  Co- 
pernicus (native  of  Thorn 
in  Prussia  proper),  who  had 
studied  in  Italy,  revived  the 
ancient  knowledge  as  to  the 
movements  of  the  planetary 
system  and  broadened  the 
conception  of  the  wonders  of 
the  Universe.  Tliese  discov- 
eries were  published  in  printed 
form  in  the  year  of  his  death, 
1543.  The  Natural  Sciences 
in  general  began  to  be  more 
closely  studied  and  more  sys- 
tematically developed. 

Invention  of  Printing. — The  diffusion  of  the  newly  ac(juired  scientific 


Printing  Press,  Iflth  Century. 
(Old  OetTiian  tooodcut) 


PERIOD    OF     CHARLES    V. 


237 


knowledge  and  of  the  old  classic  learning  was  immensely  assisted  by  the  inven* 
tion  of  printing,  which  came  into  general  use  after  1500.  The  discoverer  of  this 
art  was  John  Gutenberg,  a  citizen  of  Mayence,  but  long  resident  in  Strasburg. 
Here,  about  1440,  he  improved  the  older  art  of  cutting  on  wood  by  introducing 
movable  wooden  types  for  printing  entire  books.  He  returned  to  Mayence  in 
1445  and  entered  into  partnership  with  John  Faust  and  his  son-in-law  Peter 
SchceflFer.  The  latter  invented  cast  metallic  types.  The  first  book  printed  was 
a  Bible  begun  in  1450,  and  published  in  1456.  The  general  knowledge  of  print- 
ing was  diffused  by  troubles  in  which  Mayence  was  involved  by  contested  claims 
to  its  government,  and  by  the  consequent  dispersion  of  many  citizens.  Venice 
became  the  most  important  centre  of  the  art.  Here  were  first  given  to  the 
world  in  printed  form  most  of  the  classic  authors  of  antiquity. 

The  Use  of  Gunpowder  and  its  application  to  artillery  had 
so  far  revolutionized  the  art 
of  warfare  that  the  16th  cen- 
tury, in  this  respect  also,  was 
becoming  distinctly  "  modern." 
The  strongholds  of  the  feudal 
nobility  of  Europe  were  de- 
stroyed or  made  useless  by  the 
new  weapons.  The  courts  of 
the  monarchs  thus  became  the 
centres  of  a  new  national  life, 
by  which  the  old  local  and  pro- 
vincial isolation  was  broken 
down. 

The  use  of  infantry  in 
war  and  of  standing  armies  became  general,  and  thus  was  overthrown  the  mili- 
tary importance  of  the  old  chivalry. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder  was  probably  known  to  the  Chinese,  Hindoos, 
and  Arabs,  but  was  rediscovered  by  a  German  monk,  Berthold  Schwarz,  of 
Mayence,  after  1300,  and  was  first  employed  for  warlike  purposes  during  the 
first  half  of  the  1 4th  century. 

The  author  of  the  Protestant  movement,  Martin  Luther,  was 
bom  in  1483,  at  Eisleben,  in  Saxony.  His  family  was  poor,  and  his  early  sur- 
roundings full  of  hardship.  The  friendship  of  a  liberal  lady,  Ursula  Cotta, 
furnished  him  with  means  for  his  education.  After  taking  his  degree  in 
philosophy  at  Erfurt,  he  entered  its  Augustinian  convent  and  received  Holy 
Orders  in  1507.      After  visiting  Rome  in  1510  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 


Artillery ;  16th  Century.     Old  German  woodcut. 


238  SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Philosopliy  in  the  new  university  of  Wittenberg,  by  its  founder,  the  Elector 
Frederick  of  Saxony.  Here  he  began  to  develop  a  doctrine  exalting  faith  as 
the  only  means  to  salvation.  In  1517,  Leo  X.  granted  an  indulgence  obtain- 
able on  certain  conditions,  one  of  which  was  the  giving  of  an  alms  towards 
the  building  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Rome,  and  for  an  expedition  against  the 
Turks.  Luther,  stimulated  by  jealousy,  first  began  to  attack  the  preachers 
who  had  been  commissioned  to  preach  the  indulgence,  some  of  whom  had 
been  guilty  of  exaggeration  as  to  its  effects,  and  finally  proceeded  to  assail 
the  doctrine  of  indulgence  itself.  In  the  controversy  which  followed,  he  was 
finally  led  to  deny  the  authority  of  the  Church  Councils  and  of  the  Holy  See. 
He  publicly  burned  at  Wittenberg,  in  1520,  the  Bull  in  which  his  errors  were 
condemned  by  Pope  Leo  X.,  and  in  which  his  sentence  of  excommunication 
was  pronounced,  unless  he  should  retract  in  sixty  days.  He  was  summoned, 
in  1521,  to  appear  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  presided  over  by  the  Emperor,  but 
made  no  particular  impression  on  this  august  assembly,  and  left  Worms 
hastily.  From  this  time  till  his  death,  in  1546,  he  continued  to  agitate  in 
favor  of  the  heresy  since  known  as  Lutheranism. 

John  Calvin  was  bom  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  in  1509.  His  father  was 
a  cooper.  Calvin  made  literary  and  legal  studies  at  the  universities  of  Paris, 
Orleans,  and  Bourges.  At  the  latter  he  imbibed  Lutheran  doctrines.  In 
1534  he  went  to  Basle  in  Switzerland,  where  he  published  his  leading  work, 
"  The  Christian  Institutes."  He  afterwards  settled  at  Geneva,  where  a  most 
rigorous  and  narrow  system  of  government  was  established  by  his  influence. 
He  died  in  1564.  His  scholar,  John  Knox,  was  the  leader  of  the  Protestant 
movement  in  Scotland. 

Map  Study.—"  Western  Europe  about  1550."  Specify  the  Hapsburg  territories  and  the 
time  and  way  in  which  they  severally  became  possessions  of  this  family.  What  countries  not 
colored  purple  were  ruled  by  Charles  V.  as  an  emperor  ?  Specify  the  division  of  Hapsburg 
power  after  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  and  the  territories  allotted  to  each  branch. 

Marignano,  see  the  small  section  map  for  Northeast  Italy.  Duchy  of  Milan,  when  would 
the  purple  color  be  first  in  place  here  ?  (P.  239.)  Pavia,  see  section  map.  Observe  dimen- 
sions of  Tuscany  and  Venice.  Mohacz— observe  the  line  of  Turkish  color  in  Hungary  as 
result  of  this  battle,  and  the  purple  color  over  Bohemia  and  the  rest  of  Hungary  also  as  result. 
Compare  extent  of  Austria  in  1400,  p.  200.  Vienna ;  Tunis  ;  Algiers.  Observe  the  Hohen- 
zollern  color  (Brandenburg)  in  Prussia.  Trent  (mentioned  next  page),  see  section  map.  Smal- 
calden  ;  Mtlhlberg  ;  Passau. 

Thorn  ;  Mayence ;  Strasburg  ;  Eisleben.  (Erftirt  is  marked  on  the  map  for  age  of  Napo- 
leon.)   Wittenberg,  Worms,  Noyon. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  239 


CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE    PERIOD   OF   CHARLES   V. 

Charles  I.  of  Spain  and  V.  of  the  Empire,  born A.  d.  1500 

Conquest  of  Naples  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic "  1501 

Fourth  voyage  of  Columbus  begun —  "  1502 

Julius  II.  Pope  after "  1503 

St.  Peter's  at  Rome  begun "  1506 

Ormuz,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  a  Portuguese  possession "  150T 

Henry  Vni.  King  of  England  after.... "  1509 

French  driven  from  Milan  by  Julius  II.  in "  1512 

First  year  of  Pope  Leo  X "  1513 

Francis  I.  succeeds  Louis  XII.  and  reconquers  Milan "  1515 

Death  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  ;  Accession  of  Charles  I.  of  Spain "  1516 

The  Orlando  Furioso  published  (p.  215) "  " 

Syria  and  Egypt  conquered  by  Sultan  Selim  I.,  from  the  Mamelukes  (p.  191) "  1517 

The  death  of  Maximilian  of  Austria  gives  "  Burgundy  "  and  "  Austria"  to  Charles  I. 

of  Spain.    Charles  I .  of  Spain  elected  Charles  V.  of  the  "  Empire." "  1519 

Spanish  Conquest  of  Mexico  after "  1520 

Death  of  Pope  Leo  X  ;  Accession  of  Adrian  VI.   Magellant "  1521 

Luther  at  the  Diet  of  "Worms "  '' 

The  Turks  conquer  Rhodes  from  the  Kniglits  of  Malta "  1522 

The  French  expelled  from  Milan "  " 

Pope  Clement  VII.  succeeds  Adrian  VI.  in *'  1523 

Protestantism  introduced  in  Sweden  by  Qustavus  Vasa '*  1524 

Battle  of  Pavia  and  "  Peasant  War  "  in  Germany "  1525 

Teutonic  Knights  suppressed  in  "  Prussia  " "  " 

Battle  of  Mohacz  founds  the  Austrian  power  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary "  1526 

Sack  of  Rome  by  the  army  of  Charles  V "  1527 

Solyman  the  Great  lays  siege  to  Vienna "  1529 

Pope  Clement  VII.  crowns  Charles  V.  at  Bologna '*  1530 

The  Florentine  Republic  becomes  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany  after "  " 

Spanish  conquest  of  Peru,  after "  1531 

Charles  V.  prevents  a  second  Tnrkish  invasion  of  Germany "  1532 

Pope  Clement  VII.  succeeded  by  Paul  III.    The  Jesuit  Order  founded "  1534 

The  Act  of  Supremacy  makes  Henry  VIII.  head  of  the  English  Church "       " 

Emperor's  Expedition  to  Tunis. "  1535 

Bull  of  Pope  Paul  m.  against  enslaving  the  American  Indians "  1537 

Charles  V.  makes  his  son,  Philip  II.,  Duke  of  Milan "  1545 

Council  of  Trent  (closed  1563)  opened *'       " 

.  Death  of  Luther ;  Smalcaldian  war  begins.  *'  1546 

Battle  of  Mflhlberg •'  1547 

Death  of  Francis  I.  (successor  Henry  II.)  and  Henry  VIII.  (successor  Edward  VI.).. . .  *'       " 

Pope  Paul  HI.  succeeded  by  Julius  Til "  1549 

Peace  of  Passau  ends  the  Smalcaldian  war "  1552 

Death  of  Edward  VI.  of  England ;  Accession  of  Mary "  15.53 

Abdication  of  Charles  V.  in  1555  and "  1556 

Death  of  Charles  V.    Elizabeth  of  England  succeeds  Mary .- "  1558 


240  SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 


SYNCHRONISTIC    AND    SUPPLEMENTARY    QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN 

EXERCISE. 

Who  were  the  Popes  in  the  period  of  Charles  V.  ?  Ans.  Alexander  VI.  till  15as,  Pius  III^ 
Julius  n.,  Leo  X.,  Adrian  VI.,  Clement  VII.,  Paul  III.,  and  Julius  m. 

By  what  Pope  were  the  colonial  enterprises  of  Spain  and  Portugal  separated  and  their  later 
colonial  empires  indicated  ?    (P.  228.) 

What  important  exception  to  the  general  control  of  South  American  colonies  by  Spain 
resulted  from  this  line  of  demarcation  ?    Ans.  The  Portuguese  Colony  of  Brazil. 

What  Popes  are  especially  noted  in  the  revival  of  art  and  letters  ?    (P.  214.) 

What  artists  did  they  patronize?  Ans.  Among  many  others,  especially  Michael  Angelo 
and  Baphael. 

What  Pope  had  been  the  tutor  of  Charles  V.  ?    Ans.  Adrian  VI.,  when  Bishop  of  Utrecht. 

What  famous  goldsmith  and  sculptor  did  Clement  VII.  patronize  ?  Ans.  Benvenuto 
Cellini. 

Under  what  Pope  did  Michael  Angelo  finish  the  famous  tombs  of  the  Medici  in  the 
Church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Florence  ?    Ans.  Under  Clement  VII. 

Under  what  Pope  was  the  "  Last  Judgment "  of  Michael  Angelo  painted  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel?    (P.  222.) 

Who  made  him  architect  of  St.  Peter's  ?    (P.  222.) 

Repeat  the  names  of  Italian  artists  so  far  mentioned  belonging  to  the  period  of  Charles  V. 

What  other  artists  are  noted  ?  Ans.  Correggio,  born  near  Parma,  and  Titian  of  Venice  are 
especially  famed. 

What  event  crippled  the  later  development  of  Italian  art  ?   Ans.  The  sack  of  Rome. 

Date  it. 

What  interfered  with  Papal  patronage  of  art  and  letters  ?  Ans.  The  wars  of  French  and 
Spaniards  in  Italy  after  1581,  and  the  troubles  caused  by  the  Lutheran  movement. 

What  great  German  artists  lived  in  the  period  of  Charles  V.  ?  Ans.  Hans  Holbein  and 
Albert  Dflrer. 

What  was  the  later  development  of  German  art  ?  Ans.  It  was  cut  short  by  the  disturbances 
in  Germany. 

In  whose  pontificate  was  convened  the  Council  of  Trent  ?    (P.  239.) 

Name  the  sovereigns  of  England  and  France  in  the  period  of  Charles  V.  ?    (P.  289.) 

Name  two  Sultans  of  Turkey  In  this  period  ?    (P.  239.) 

When  did  the  Turks  first  enter  Europe  ?    Ans.  In  1356.    (See  p.  901.) 

When  did  they  take  Constantinople  ?    (P.  135.) 

When  did  they  occupy  the  Crimea  ?    (P.  227.) 

When  did  they  conquer  Syria  and  Egypt  ?    (P.  239.) 

Rhodes  ?    (P.  239.) 

Part  of  Hungary  ?    (P.  233.) 

Date  their  siege  of  Vienna.    (P.  233.) 

Who  prevented  flarther  encroachments  ?    (P.  288.) 

What  American  countries  belonged  to  Spain  under  Charles  V.  ?    (P.  888.) 

Who  became  ruler  of  England  in  the  year  when  Charles  V.  died  ?    (P.  239.) 


LATER    HISTORY    OF    SPAIN. 


241 


SPAIN.  AFTER  THE    PERIOD   OF  CHARLES  V. 

SPANISH    HAPSBURGS. 

Charles  1.  (V.) A.  d.  1516-1556 

Philip  II. ,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1556-1598 

Philip  III.,"    "      "        "  *♦      1598-1621 

PhilipIV.,  "    "      "        "  '*      1621-1665 

Charles  II.,"    "      "        "         (Line  extinct) "      1665-1700 

The  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France  founded  by  inheritance,  after  1700,  the  Line  of  Span- 
ish Bourbons,  still  reigning,  with  interniisaion  in  the  time  of  Bonaparte,  early  19th  century, 
and  in  late  revolutions.    The  reigning  Spanish  Bourbon  is  Alphonso,  proclaimed  king  1874. 

The  Spanish  ascendency  over  Europe  continued  for  a  century  after 
the  death  of  Charles  V.,  and  did  not,  till  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  1659, 
(reign  of  Louis  XIV.,)  yield  the 
precedence  to  France,  which, 
however,  all  this  time  constant- 
ly contested  it.  This  Spanish 
ascendency  is  apparent  in 
the  "  Burgundian  "  possessions 
within  the  Germanic  Empire,  in 
the  control  of  North  and  South 
Italy  (Naples  and  Milan)  and 
in  the  immense  colonial  posses- 
sions. (Portugal  was  also  a 
Spanish  conquest  from  1580  to 
1640.)  It  is  apparent  also  in 
the  high  perfection  of  Spanish 
art  in  the  17th  century — time 
of  the  painters  Velasquez  and 
Murillo — and  by  the  reputation 
in  the  field  of  letters  of  Cer- 
vantes (1547-1616),  author  of  Don  Quixote ;  of  Lopez  de  Vega  (1562-1635) 
and  Calderon  (1601-1687),  authors  of  a  multitude  of  fine  plays. 

The  Spanish  Hapsburg  rulers,  after  Philip  II.,  made  no  especial 
mark  in  history  as  individuals,  and  their  line  became  extinct  in  1700.  Mean- 
time Spanish  commerce  was  much  crippled  in  the  later  16th  century  by  the 
English  privateers,  whose  wholesale  depredations  in  time  of  peace  led  to  the 


Palace  of  the  Escurial,  near  Madrid. 
{Built  by  Philip  IJ.) 


243  SPAIN. 

Spanisli  Armada  (see  English  history).  Spain  was  also  crippled  in  the  17th 
century  by  the  commercial  wars  with  the  Dutch  which  grew  out  of  the  revolt 
of  the  Netherlands  under  Philip  II.  (see  next  section). 

Decay  of  Spanish  Power.— The  country  shows  a  marked  decay  of 
vigor  in  the  later  17th  and  in  the  18th  centuries.  A  period  of  exhaustion 
naturally  follows  one  of  great  expansion  ;  but  probably  the  greatest  injury  to 
the  prosperity  of  Spain  was  her  wealth  in  precious  metals  (so  highly  prized  in 
the  16th  century)  drawn  from  the  American  Colonies — just  as  in  our  own  time 
Germany  grew  poorer  by  the  extortion  of  an  immense  war  indemnity  from 
France.  Any  sudden  increase  in  the  amount  of  gold  and  silver  has  simply  the 
result  of  raising  prices,  and  it  is  apt  at  the  same  time  to  cultivate  habits  of 
prodigality  and  idleness.  The  poverty  of  modern  Spain  is  the  result  of  the 
destruction  of  the  trees  and  consequent  dryness  of  the  soil.  This  country  sup- 
ported 40,000,000  inhabitants  in  antiquity.    It  now  support.s  only  8,000,000. 

Map  Explanation.— Alter  the  extinction  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburg  Line  in  1700  Spain 
and  the  American  pos»«6sions  passed,  by  the  Spanish  Succession  War  and  Peace  of  Utrecht, 
1713,  to  a  French  Bourbon  Dynasty.  The  history  of  the  remaining  Spanish  Hapsburg  terri- 
tories, after  that  time,  will  be  found  in  later  sections  relating  to  the  countries  which  acquired 
them. 


GERMANY 


AFTER  1500, 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

GERMANIC    EMPERORS   OF  THE   16th  CENTURY. 

Maximilian  I.  of  Hapsburg- Austria a.  d.  (1493)-1519 

Charles  V,,  grandson  of  the  foregoing "        1519-1556 

Ferdinand  I.,  brother     "  "  "        1556-1564 

Maximilian  II.,  son         "  "  "        1564-1576 

Rudolf  II.,  son  "  "  *'     1576-(1613) 

Austria  acquired  a  new  importance  in  the  16th  century  by  its 
Hungarian  and  Bohemian  territories  (to  which  Silesia  belonged)  and 
by  its  position  as  the  barrier  for  Germany  against  the  Turks.     On 
account  of  this  position  and  of  the  Hapsburg 
influence  over  the  Electors,  Austria  continued  to 
hold  the  Imperial  dignity.    The  power  to  which     M^^-^- 
this  dignity  had  been  raised  by  Charles  V.  had     m^^^ii% 
tended  to  revive  the  old  consolidated  sovereignty 
of  Germany,  but  had  not  succeeded  in  doing  so. 
Maximilian  had  established  in  1495  an  organi- 
zation of  the  empire  by  departments  or  "cir-     m^m^»%^^j 
cles,"  which  was  strengthened  by  his  successor.  (^iTmioaJii) 

Each  principality  was  to   contribute  a  certain 
number  of  men  to  a  common  army  when  needed,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  money  to  the   common  treasury.     The  authority  of  an 
Imperial  Court  was  also  recognized.    But  the  cumbrousness  of  pro- 


^44  GERMANY. 

cedure  and  uncertainty  of  operation  in  these  arrangements  were 
extreme. 

The  religious  divisions  of  Germany  were  an  additional  ele- 
ment of  weakness  and  of  confusion.  It  was  under  these  disadvan- 
tages that  the  Imperial  reigns  of  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs  Ferdi- 
nand I,,  Maximilian  II.,  and  Rudolf  II.  were  conducted. 

In  the  Burgundian  portion  of  the  Empire  a  revolt  began 
against  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs  in  1566,  which  lost  them  their  Dutch 
Provinces.  Under  the  severe  rule  of  the  Spanish  General  Alba 
both  the  Flemish  Catholic  and  Dutch  Protestant  Provinces  were 
united  in  resisting  the  rule  of  Philip  II.  After  1579  the  humane 
and  politic  conduct  of  the  Italian  Duke  of  Parma,  the  greatest  mili- 
tary genius  of  his  time,  brought  back  the  Catholic  Flemish  Nether- 
lands to  the  rule  of  Spain.  The  Dutch  continued  their  struggle, 
headed  by  William  of  Orange,  "  the  Silent,"  till  his  assassination  in 
1584.  A  price  had  been  set  on  his  head  as  a  rebel  by  Philip  II.  The 
war  outlasted  Philip's  reign  and  the  limits  of  the  century. 

Germany  suffered  mucli  from  the  so-called  Reformation,  politically  and 
economically,  in  civilization  as  well  as  in  religion.  The  great  modern  authors  of  Italy, 
Spain,  France  and  England,  precede  the  great  German  men  of  letters  by  centuries.  The 
latter  belong  to  the  late  18th  and  early  19th  centuries.  By  the  Lutheran  movement  North  Ger- 
many was  cut  off  from  the  cultivating  influences  of  Southern  Europe.  South  Germany,  in 
contention  with  the  North,  partly  lost  the  advantages  of  its  geographical  contact  with  Italy. 
After  Italy  and  Spain  the  precedence  in  modern  civilization  belongs  to  France  ;  but  the  glori- 
ous development  of  music  iu  18th  century  Germany  Qtalian  influence)  and  of  modern  German 
literature  (under  Greek  inspiration)  atones  for  the  tardiness  of  the  flower.  During  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries  the  leading  representatives  of  the  interests  of  culture  and  education  in  the  Ger- 
man States  were  the  Jesuits. 

Map  Study.— Compare  maps  for  1400  and  1550  to  notice  once  more  Austria's  gain  in  1520 
of  Hungary,  Bohemia  and  Silesia.    Observe  the  position  of  the  Turks. 

Compare  maps  for  1550  and  1648  for  the  Netherland  provinces  and  the  change  of  color  for 
the  Dutch  Republic. 

MAP  EXPLANATION. 

(The  places  not  entered  on  the  map  for  1550  may  be  found  on  later  maps  (among  others  see 
map  for  1816),  or  in  a  modern  map,  which  should  be  need  in  all  cases  for  comparison  and  con- 
trast.) 

Next  to  Austria  the  most  important  principality  of  the  south  was  Bavaria— capital, 
Munich  ;  of  the  north,  Brandenburg-— capital,  Berlin ;  of  the  centre,  Saxony— capital, 
Dresden ;  of  the  southwest,  Wiirtembergr— capital,  Stuttgart,  and  the  Palatinate— cap- 


SIXTEENTH     CENTURY 


245 


Ital,  Heidelberg ;  of  the  west  centre,  the  two  Hesses  and  the  Archbishoprics  of  Mayence 
and  Treves  ;  of  the  northwest,  the  Archbishopric  of  Colog-ne  and  Bishopric  of  Mtlnster. 


The  Castle  at  Heidelberg.    Built  in  the  16th  Century, 


The  free  city  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main  was  the  capital  of  the  Empire  and  place  of  coro- 
nation. 

North  Germany  was  mainly  Protestant,  South  Germany  mainly  Catholic  ;  but  in  the  west 
the  Rhine-Palatinate  was  Calvinist,  while  the  northwest  remained  Catholic.  Saxony 
was  mainly  Protestant  under  a  Catholic  dynasty. 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   GERMAN    HISTORY    IN   THE  16th   CENTURY. 


Accession  of  Charles  V a.  d.  1519 

Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms "  1521 

Prussia  "secularized"  by  a  Hohenzollcrn,  i  ^^ 

"  Peasant  Wars,"  ' 

Hungary  and  Bohemia,  Austrian  after "  1526 

Turkish  Siege  of  Vienna "  1529 

Anabaptist  Communism "  1534 

Smalcaldian  War "  -1546 

Peace  of  Passau "  1552 

Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor,  after "  1556 

Council  of  Trent  adjourned "  1563 

Revolt  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands "  1566 

Maximihan  11.,  Emperor  after a.  d.  1564 

Ptudolf  II. ,  Emperor  after "  1576 

Parma  secures  the  Catholic  Netherlands  for  Spain  after "  1579 

Assassination  of  William  th«  ««i»"t- "  1534 


246  GERMANY. 


SYNCHRONISTIC  AND  SUPPLEMENTARY   QUESTIONS. 

What  were  the  territories  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs  after  1556  ? 

What  Spanish  territories  were  in  the  Germanic  Empire  •* 

What  were  the  territories  of  the  Austrian  Haps-burgs  after  1556? 

What  were  the  territories  of  the  Hohenzollerns  after  1525? 

Who  was  king  of  Spain  in  the  last  half  of  the  16th  century  ?    (P.  241.) 

How  long  before  the  end  of  the  century  did  he  die  ? 

Who  was  queen  of  England  during  all  this  time  ?    Ans.  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  1558-1603. 

Who  were  the  French  sovereigns  in  the  last  half  of  the  16th  century  ?  Aits.  Henry  H.^ 
Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  Henry  III.,  Henry  IV. 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  Protestant  ?  Ans.  At  the  diet  of  Spires,  1529,  a  number  of 
German  princes  entered  a  Protest  against  the  decisions  of  the  Catholic  majority. 

What  great  Italian  author  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  ?    (P.  215.) 

What  contemporary  great  Spanish  authors  ? 

What  contemporary  great  English  author  ?    A/is.  Shakespeare. 


SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

GERMANIC    EMPERORS   OF  THE   17th   CENTURY. 

Rudolf  II.  of  Hai)sburg- Austria a.  d.  (1576)-! 612 

Matthias,  brother  of  the  foregoing "       1612-1619 

Ferdinand  II.,  cousin  "  " "       1619-1637 

Ferdinand  III.,  son  of  "         **         :    "       1637-1657 

Leopold  I.,         ''    "  "         "         "       1657-1705 

The  Dutch  Republic. — After  the  year  1609  the  independence 
of  the  Dutch  Republic  from  Spain  was  practically  assured,  and  a 
twelve  years'  truce  was  then  made.  The  Dutch  had  already  begun 
to  supplant  the  Portuguese  in  the  East  Indies  (p.  228).  (Portugal 
and  its  colonies  belonged  to  Spain  from  1580  to  1640.)  During  this 
century  the  Dutch  became  the  most  important  commercial  and 
maritime  power  in  Europe. 

Catholic  Reaction. — During  the  last  half  of  the  16th  century 
a  Catholic  reaction  had  been  gathering  force  in  Germany.  Prot- 
estant confiscations  of  Church  lands,  continued  after  the  Peace  of 
Passau  and  against  its  agreements,  were  a  constant  source  of  irrita- 
tion and  complaint.     This  was  an  important  cause  of  the  Thirty 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


247 


Years'  War ;  but  political  motives  were  blended  with  religious. 
The  opponents  and  antagonists  of  the  House  of  Austria  assumed 
the  religious  colors.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  Bohemia,  where 
the  war  began. 

Thirty  Years'  War.  First  Period.— In  1618  in  order  of  the  Em- 
peror Mattliias  to  close  two  churches,  erected  by  Protestants  of  Bohemia  on 
ground  belonging  to  the  Abbot 
and  Archbishop  of  Prague, 
caused  a  revolt  in  this  country 
which  assumed  national  pro- 
portions on  account  of  Bo- 
hemian aspirations  for  a  gov- 
ernment separate  from  Austria. 
The  rebels  elected  a  Protest- 
ant, Frederick  V.  of  the  Palati- 
nate, son-in-law  of  James  I.  of 
England,  as  their  king.  They 
were  decisively  defeated  in  the 
battle  of  the  White  Mountain 
near  Prague,  in  1620,  by  the 
army  of  the  new  Emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  Frederick  the 
"Winter-king,"  so  called,  be- 
cause king  only  for  one  Avinter, 
fled  to  Holland.  His  States 
were  confiscated  by  the  Em- 
peror and  giv^en  to  Bavaria. 

Thirty     Years'     War. 
Second  Period.— Christian 

of  Denmark,  who  was  a*  Prince  of  the  Germanic  Empire  for  Sleswick-Holstein, 
instigated  by  France  (Richelieu),  and  England  (Charles  I.),  took  up  arms  for  the 
cause  of  the  Elector-Palatine  in  1635.  The  Bohemian  Count  Wallenstein, 
general  for  the  Emperor,  and  Tilly,  general  of  the  Catholic  German  League, 
invaded  and  occupied  the  North  German  States.  Christian  of  Denmark  was 
driven  out  of  Jutland  to  the  Danish  Islands.  Wallenstein  failed  only  in  the 
siege  of  Stralsund.  By  the  Peace  of  Liibeck,  1629,  Christian  received  back  his 
lost  territories  on  condition  of  abandoning  the  war. 

Thirty  Years'  War,    Third  Period.— An  "Edict  of   Restitution" 


Troopers  of  the  Thirty  Yeai-s'  War. 
{From  a  painting  by  Terburg,  contemporary  artist.) 


248  GERMANY. 

was  now  issued  by  the  Emperor,  for  the  return  of  the  Church  lands  confiscated 
since  the  Peace  of  Passau  ;  but  its  execution  was  cut  short  by  new  diflBculties. 
His  successes  in  Bohemia  and  South  Germany  had  been  won  by  troops  of  the 
Catholic  League,  of  which  Bavaria  was  the  head.  He  now  proposed  to  disband 
them  and  replace  them  by  the  troops  of  Wallenstein.  This  general  was  known 
to  favor  a  consolidated  German  sovereignty  resembling  that  of  France,  Spain,  or 
England,  and  the  Catholic  princes  took  the  alarm  and  refused  to  disband  their 
army.  In  union  with  the  Protestant  States  they  demanded  and  procured  the 
displacement  of  Wallenstein.  The  Electoral  Princes  refused  to  ratify  his  pos- 
session of  the  North  German  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg,  given  him,  after  conquest, 
by  the  Emperor.  The  lack  of  organism  and  system  made  it  impossible  to  pay 
the  Imperialist  troops.  The  armies  levied  on  the  country,  and  the  odium  of 
their  excesses  had  fallen  upon  this  general. 

Meantime  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  landed  with  15,000  highly 
disciplined  soldiers  in  Pomerania,  in  1630.  This  invasion  was  the  result  of  an 
understanding  with  France,  which  pursued  under  the  guidance  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu  her  traditional  policy  of  weakening  the  Hapsburgs.  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus proposed  the  foundation  of  a  Swedish  Baltic  Empire,  including  Northeast 
Germany.  His  ambition,  at  a  later  day  at  least,  even  aimed  at  the  Imperial 
crown. 

His  arrival  was  not  welcomed  by  the  Protestant  States,  and  Brandenburg 
was  forcibly  occupied  by  him.  Saxony  hesitated  between  the  two  parties — was 
invaded  by  Tilly  after  his  destruction  of  Magdeburg,  and  then  called  in  the 
Swedes  to  assistance.  Notwithstanding  the  coolness  with  which  Gustavus 
Adolphus  had  been  received,  the  discipline  of  his  army,  which  did  not  plunder, 
won  for  him  the  good  will  of  the  people.  As  a  general  he  was  constantly  suc- 
cessful against  the  Imperialists.  After  the  victory  at  Breitenfeld,  near  Leipzig, 
over  Tilly,  1631,  almost  all  Germany  (excepting  Austria)  fell  into  his  hands. 
The  Saxons,  now  allies  of  the  Swedes,  entered  Bohemia  and  took  Prague. 

In  this  extremity  recourse  was  had  by  the  Emperor  once  more  to  WaUen- 
stein.  On  condition  of  absolute  independence  of  control,  he  accepted  command 
and  raised  an  army.  After  some  months  of  indecisive  manoeuvres  the  Swedes 
and  Imperialists  met  at  Liitzen  in  Saxony,  1632.  Gustavus  Adolphus  was 
killed,  but  Wallenstein  was  defeated  and  retired  into  Bohemia. 

Divisions  now  rose  in  the  army  of  the  Swedes.  Wallenstein's  negotiations 
with  them,  and  his  inactivity,  awakened  suspicions  at  Vienna.  He  was  removed 
from  command,  and  as  he  continued  to  negotiate,  was  assassinated  as  a 
traitor  by  one  of  his  oflBcers,  at  Eger  in  Bohemia,  1634.  The  act  was  sanctioned 
bjr  the  Emperor  after  comipission,  by  a  proclamation,  dated  back,  setting  a  price 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  249 

on  the  head  of  Wallenstein,  The  plans  of  Wallenstein  and  the  justice  of  his 
fate  are  not  certain.  His  character  is  perhaps  the  most  mysterious  one  of  his- 
tory. The  Swedes  were  defeated  at  Nordlingen,  1634.  They  had  meantime 
lost  all  discipline,  and  the  country  continued  to  be  mercilessly  plundered  by  the 
soldiers  of  both  parties. 

Thirty  Years'  War.  Fourth  Perioci.~In  1635,  Protestant  Saxony 
made  peace  with  the  Emperor,  admitting  the  Edict  of  Restitution  with  some 
restrictions.  But  the  French  now  declared  war  on  Austria  and  Spain  (both 
being  Hapsburg  powers),  and  Oxenstiern,  Minister  for  the  Swedes,  in  under- 
standing with  the  French,  refused  to  leave  Germany  without  cession  of  terri- 
tory and  pay  for  his  soldiers.     This  prolonged  the  war  for  thirteen  years. 

Character  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.— The  main  original  causes  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  were  Catholic  irritation  at  the  Protestant  confiscations  of  Church  property,  Protestant 
irritation  at  the  rapid  progress  of  Catholicism,  and  the  general  disorder  and  confusion  of  an 
empire  in  which  a  sovereign  authority  was  neither  recognized  absolutely  nor  entirely  disputed. 
The  long  duration  of  the  war  was  not,  however,  caused  by  religious  difierences,  which  would 
only  explain  its  first  period.  This  long  duration  was  partly  caused  by  the  inability  of  either 
party  to  centre  itself  and  present  a  determined  front.  The  constant  dissensions  between 
Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  which  were  quite  as  bitter  as  those  with  the  Catholics,  weakened 
the  Protestants.  The  jealousy  of  Catholic  Bavaria  and  other  Catholic  states,  who  refused  to 
admit  the  diminution  of  their  powers  and  a  more  absolute  subordination  to  the  Emperor, 
weakened  the  Catholics.  The  hereditaiy  rivalry  of  France  against  the  Hapsburgs,  which 
opposed  the  consolidation  of  Germany  by  Hapsburg  power,  and  the  ambition  of  Sweden  to 
establish  a  Baltic  empire  including  the  coast  provinces  of  North  Germany,  continued  the  war 
long  after  the  Germans  themselves  wishcfl  it  over.  Protestant  soldiers  fought  in  the  armies 
of  Wallenstein  ;  Protestant  states  sided  with  the  Emperor,  in  whole  or  in  part,  at  diflferent 
times.    The  Catholic  French  assisted  Protestants  in  their  resistance  to  the  Imperialists. 

To  these  elements  of  confusion  was  added  the  national  spirit  of  Bohemia,  whose  Slavonic 
population  was  subject  to  the  Austrian  German  rule,  and  the  general  lack  of  cohesion  in  the 
Austrian  state  resulting  from  the  absence  of  ties  of  blood  between  its  different  portions— the 
Hungarians  and  the  Bohemians  being  of  different  blood  both  from  each  other  and  from  the 
German  Austrians.  (The  Hungarians  are  an  Asiatic  race,  originally  allied  to  the  Turkish 
family.) 

Since  there  was  no  recognized  established  central  authority  on  either  side  to  raise  pay  for 
the  troops,  the  armies  of  both  sides  lived  on  the  countiy  and  supported  themselves  by  plunder. 
The  result  of  the  struggle  was  therefore  an  exhaustion  and  depopulation  from  which  the 
country  did  not  recover  till  after  the  middle  of  the  18th  century— perhaps  has  not  yet  recovered. 
The  small  towns  and  villages  suffered  most.  In  them  it  is  computed  that  three-fourths  of  the 
inhabitants,  four-fifths  of  the  live  stock,  and  two-thirds  of  the  dwellings  were  destroyed. 
Twenty  thousand  corpses  were  found  in  Magdeburg  after  its  destruction  by  Tilly. 

The  Imperial  cause  corresponded  partially  to  that  which  had  unified  the  national  states  of 
France,  Spain,  and  England,  but  only  partially,  for  the  Hapsburgs  did  not  possess  sufficiently 
the  national  confidence  of  Germany  to  solidify  the  country.  This  was  for  two  reasons.  Span- 
ish sympathies,  interests,  and  policy  were  naturally  imputed  to  the  Austrian  dynasty,  ana 


250  GERMANY. 

Austria  itself  was  only  in  a  small  part  of  its  whole  territories  a  Germanic  state— namely,  in 
Austria  proper.  It  was  not  sufficiently  strong  in  its  own  territories  to  control  securely  the 
rest  of  Germany,  even  had  religious  divisions  not  existed. 

Peace  of  Westphalia,  1648. — The  call  for  a  congress  of 
ambassadors  had  been  issued  eight  years,  and  their  sessions  had 
continued  four  years,  when  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  announced, 
so  named  because  sessions  were  held  at  Osnabriick  and  Munster 
in  this  proyince.  The  most  important  feature  of  the  treaty 
was  the  total  abandonment  of  the  idea  of  a  single  Germanic  sov- 
ereignty. The  Emperor  retained  only  a  nominal  control  of  the 
German  principalities,  which,  to  the  number  of  over  two  hundred 
and  fifty,  were  recognized  as  practically  independent,  with  separate 
diplomatic  representation  at  foreign  courts  and  with  independent 
armies. 

(In  the  arrangements  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  1866,  one  of  these  Grerman  states  was 
omitted  from  the  treaty.    It  was  so  small  that  it  was  forgotten. 

The  Austrian  possessions  in  Alsace  were  ceded  to  France. 
They  had  been  conquered  during  the  latter  part  of  the  war  by  a 
German  in  French  pay,  Bernard  of  Weimar.  Part  of  Pomerania 
was  ceded  to  Svreden,  with  the  Bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Ver- 
den  (these  latter  territories  were  afterward  an  important  part  of 
modern  Hanover).  The  independence  of  the  Dutch  Republic 
was  acknowledged  both  by  Spain  and  by  the  Germanic  Empire. 
The  independence  of  the  Swiss  Republic  from  the  Germanic 
Empire  was  acknowledged.  The  Swiss  Cantons  had  been  really 
separated  from  the  Empire  since  the  time  of  Maximilian  I.  They 
now  became  free  legally.    (See  p.  195  for  earlier  Swiss  history.) 

In  the  matter  of  confiscated  Church  lands,  the  year  1624  was 
adopted  as  the  "  normal "  year — that  is,  confiscations  made  before 
that  year  were  to  be  undisturbed — a  provision  made  in  defiance  of 
the  Papal  protest. 

G-ermany  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War.— After  1648  the 
numerous  German  principalities  were  bound  together,  for  foreign 
affairs,  by  a  political  confederation  of  which  Austria  was  the  head, 


/•/). 


SEVENTEENTH     CENTURY. 


251 


but  absolute  despotism  of  each  particular  prince  became  the  form  of 
government  for  the  people. 

Rise  of  Prussia. — Under  the  "  Great  Elector,"  Frederick  Will- 
iam of  Brandenburg,  1640-1688, 
his  province  of  Prussia  was  freed, 
in  1657,  from  its  feudal  depen- 
dence on  Poland.  Generally  in 
alliance  and  friendship  with 
Austria,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  wars  with  Sweden,  Po- 
land, and  France,  and  raised 
his  state  to  the  position  which 
secured  his  successors  the  royal 
title  for  their  Prussian  prov- 
ince, and  therewith  the  appel- 
lation of  Prussia  for  all  their 
territories. 

Rise  of  Austria. — The  weakness  of  the  Germanic  Empire  after 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  exposed  it  to  the  encroachments  of  the 
French  king,  Louis  XIV.,  whose  wars  disturbed  Europe  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  17th  century.  The  states  of  the  Hapsburg  Emperor,  on 
whose  armies  devolved  the  duty  of  defence,  were  far  removed  from 
the  borders  attacked.  Notwithstanding  this  disadvantage  in  the 
wars  with  France,  Austria  increased  in  strength.  After  the  siege 
of  Vienna  by  the  Turks  in  1683,  when  the  Polish  king,  Sobieski, 
rescued  the  city,  rapid  headway  was  made  against  the  Turks  in 
Hungary.  By  the  peace  of  Carlowitz,  1699,  they  entirely  aban- 
doned this  country. 

In  intellectual  and  literary  efiFort,  17th  century  Germany 
is  almost  a  blank.  The  fashions  of  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.  set  the 
tone  for  all  her  petty  courts.  France  was  the  intellectual  and 
artistic  force  of  the  age. 


statue  of  the  Great  Elector,  Berlin. 
{By  Scfdiiter,  contemporary  8culplcn\) 


Map  Study  for  "Europe  in  1648."    Prague.    (Klostergrab  and  Braunau  are  the  places 
where  churches  were  closed.)    White  Mountain  is  Weissenberg,  near  Prague.    Sleswick  and 


252  GERMANY. 

Holstein.    Jutland,    Mecklenberg ;  see  Europe  in  1713.    Pomcrania,  Magdeburg,  Breitenfeld, 
Leipzig,  Lfltzen,  Eger,  Nordlingen,  Osnabruck,  Munster. 

For  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  see  French  color  in  Alsace,  colors  of  Sweden  and  Brandenburg  in 
Pomerania.  See  Swedish  color  at  mouth  of  the  Elbe  for  Bremen  and  Verden.  Compare 
Switzerland  on  last  three  maps  with  Switzerland  without  local  sovereignty  and  part  of  the 
German  Empire  on  map  for  1400.  Observe  the  separation  In  locality,  so  far,  between  Branden- 
burg aud  Prussia.    Carlowitz  is  near  Belgrade— see  modern  map  of  Austria. 

MAP  EXPLANATION. 

The  importance  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  its  closing  treaty  for  the  history  of 
Europe  will  appear  by  the  reflection  that  all  events  of  our  own  century  in  Germany  are 
changes  in  arrangements  then  made.  Therefore  some  brief  notice  of  the  complicated  geog- 
raphy of  the  states  then  made  territorially  independent  will  be  proper. 

A  modern  map  of  Germany  should  be  used  with  this  explanation,  but  many  smaller  Ger- 
man states  are  entered  on  later  maps,  especially  on  map  for  1816. 

Bavaria  was  increased  in  the  north  by  the  Upper  Palatinate  (p.  254),  and  was  given  an 
eighth  Electoral  vote.  The  Lower  (Rhine)  Palatinate  was  returned  to  the  heir  of  the  "  Winter 
king." 

Bavaria  was  about  two-thirds  of  its  present  dimensions.  It  was  first  materially  enlarged  by 
Bonaparte. 

"WUrtemberg:  was  much  smaller  than  now.    It  was  enlarged  at  the  same  time. 

Baden  was  a  small  strip  of  territory  on  the  Rhine.  An  important  part  of  modern  Baden 
then  belonged  to  the  Palatinate  (capital  Heidelberg).  Modern  Baden  was  created  by  Bonaparte. 

Hesse-Darmstadt  was  considerably  smaller  than  at  present  (increased  by  Bonaparte). 

The  three  large  Bishoprics  of  Mayence,  Treves,  and  Cologrne  (p.  200)  were  secularized 
(made  secular  property)  by  the  French  Revolution.  In  1648  they  occupied  very  considerable 
territories  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle. 

Oldenburg-  (map  for  1816)  is  a  territory  famed  for  its  Dynasty,  which  gave  rulers  to  Den- 
mark and  intermarried  with  the  Houses  of  Russia  and  Sweden. 

Hanover,  or  Brunswick-Lflneburg,  was  much  smaller  in  1648  than  when  absorbed  by 
Prussia  in  1866.  It  was  afterwards  increased  by  the  territories  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  ceded 
to  Sweden  in  1648  (see  map  at  p.  254). 

Saxony  had  been  increased  since  1635  by  Lausitz  or  Lusatia  (p.  228),  an  addition  to  its 
northern  border  from  Austrian  Silesia.    It  was  made  a  kingdom  and  enlarged  by  Bonaparte. 

The  Saxon  Duchies— Saxe-Weimar,  Saxe-Cobnrg,  Saxe-Gotha,  etc.— were  in  1648  of 
about  the  dimensions  of  later  time. 

Between  and  around  the  various  states  so  far  mentioned  as  enlarged  since  1648 
must  be  imagined  the  smaller  independent  states,  towns,  and  Bishoprics,  which  afterwards 
built  up  the  increase  of  those  mentioned  by  name.  After  Bonaparte  there  were  thirty-nine 
German  states  as  against  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  and  over  recognized  by  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia. 

Pomerania.— In  North  Germany  the  province  of  Pomerania  was  divided  between 
Sweden  and  Brandenburg,  the  latter  having  the  larger  share  (p.  250). 

Mecklenburg*  had  about  the  same  dimensions  in  1648  as  now. 

The  Hohenzollems  of  Brandenburg.— Among  these  now  both  practically  and 
legally  independent  German  princes,  the  Hohenzollems  begjin,  after  1648,  to  take  the  leading 
position  next  to  Austria,  at  least  for  North  Germany.  The  steady  rise  of  the  Electorate  of 
Brandenburg  to  prominence  was  assisted   by  its  dimension,  which,  after  increase  by  the 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  253 

Treaty  of  Westphalia,  was  larger  than  any  other  single  German  principality,  and  by  the 
thrift  and  good  management  of  the  reigning  family,  which  has  always  exerted  the  most  im- 
portant personal  influence  on  the  fortunes  of  this  state. 

The  Hohenzollems  "of  Brandenburg  (Prussia)  gained,  in  1648,  the  larger  (eastern)  part  of 
Pomerania,  the  Archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  and  some  smaller  Bishoprics. 

This  House  already  owned  in  1648,  besides  the  little  original  Hohenzollern  terri- 
tory in  the  angle  between  Southern  Baden  and  Southern  Wurtemberg— first,  Anspach  and 
Baireuth.  in  South  Germany  (p.  1G6),  territories  now  belonging  to  Bavaria;  second,  the 
Duchy  of  Brandenburg-,  capital  Berlin  (since  1417) ;  third,  the  province  of  Prussia, 
in  extreme  Northeastern  Germany,  since  1.525.  This  province  (as  related,  p.  168)  was  colo- 
nized by  crusading  knights  of  the  Teutonic  Order  about  1200.  In  1525  the  Grand-Master  of 
the  Order,  Albert  of  Brandenburg  (a  Hohenzollern),  turned  Lutheran,  secularized  its  terri- 
tories (made  himself  their  secular  ruler)  and  married.  His  territory  of  "  Prussia  "  was  in  feudal 
dependence  to  Poland.  His  line  died  out  in  the  third  generation,  and  Prussia  then  passed 
in  1618,  to  the  Hohenzollems  of  Brandenburg.  In  1627  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  acquired 
certain  territories  in  Western  Germany— Cleves,  Marck,  and  Ravensberg"  (p.  254),  im- 
portant as  opening  the  way  to  the  large  Prussian  gains  in  Western  Germany  after  the  French 
Kevolution, 


CHRONOLOGY   OF  GERMAN    HISTORY    IN   THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Spanish  truce  with  the  Dutch  Republic a.  d.  1609 

Emperor  Mattiiias,  after "  1612 

Thirty  Years'  War  begins "  1618 

Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  after *'  1619 

Christian  of  Denmark  enters  the  Thirty  Years'  War "  1625 

"  abandonsit "  1629 

Gustavus  Adolphus  invades  Germany. . .  "  1630 

Battle  of  Breitenfeld "  1631 

Battle  of  Lutzen  ;  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus ...   "  1632 

France  declares  war  on  the  Hapsburgs .   "  1635 

Emperor  Ferdinand  III.,  after "  1637 

Peace  of  WestphaUa "  1648 

Emperor  Leopold  I.,  after "  1657 

The  Empire  loses  (Spanish)  Franche-Comte  to  France "  1678 

Turkish  siege  of  Vienna "  1688 

Burning  of  the  Palatinate  by  French  troops.    (Ruins  of  Heidelberg  Castle.) "  1689 

Peace  of  Carlowitz  with  Turkey "  1699 


SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

How  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  in 
Massachusetts  in  1620  ? 

Who  were  the  English  rulers  of  the  17th  century?  Ans.  James  I,,  Charles  I.  (executed 
1649),  Cromwell,  Charles  II,,  James  II.,  William  III. 

How  long  is  1614,  the  date  when  the  Dutch  settled  New  Amsterdam  (New  York),  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ? 


254  GERMANY. 

How  long  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  Charles  I.  executed  ? 

How  long  after  this  peace  is  the  date  for  the  English  possession  of  New  York  in  1664? 

Who  were  French  kings  of  the  17th  century  ?    Afis.  Henry  IV.,  Louis  Xm.,  Louis  XIV. 

In  what  wars  with  Louis  XIV.  was  the  Empire  involved  in  the  last  half  of  the  17th  century  ? 
Ans.  In  the  war  with  Holland— the  German  Empire  lost  thereby  (Spanish)  Pranche-Comte  in 
1678— and  the  war  of  the  League  of  Augsburg,  when  the  Palatinate  was  devastated  in  1689. 

What  was  the  character  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburg  rulers  ?    (P.  341.) 

What  power  ruled  Milan  in  the  17th  century  ?  (P.  S32.)  Sicily  ?  (P.  220.)  Naples  ?  (P.  220.) 
Sardinia?  (P226.)  The  Southern  Netherlands ?  (P.  229.)  Mexico  and  Peru  ?  (P.  228.)  See 
also  p.  236  and  maps,  pp.  228,  250. 

Who  was  the  last  Spanish  Hapsburg  ?    (P.  241.)    When  did  he  die  ?    (P.  841.) 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

EMPERORS   OF   GERMANY    IN   THE   18th   CENTURY. 

Leopold  I.  of  Hapsburg- Austria a.  d.  (1657)-1705 

Joseph  I.,  SOD  of  the  foregoing "  1705-1711 

Charles  VI.,  brother  of  the  foregoing "  1711-1740 

Charles  VII.  (a  Bavarian) "  1740-1745 

Francis  I.  (of  Lorraine),  husband  of  Maria  The- 
resa, the  daughter  of  Charles  VI "  1745-1765 

Joseph  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1765-1790 

Leopold  II.,  brother  of  the  foregoing "  1790-1793 

Francis  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1792-(1832) 

Prussia  obtains  the  Royal  Title. — In  1701,  by  Imperial 
grant,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  obtained  the  royal  title  as  king 
of  Prussia  (the  title  being  borrowed  from  the  northeast  province  of 
his  territories).  In  return  for  this  honor  he  gave  active  support  to 
Austria  in  the  contest  for  the  Spanish  Succession. 

Spanish  Succession. — The  extinction  of  the  Spanish  Haps- 
burg line,  in  1700,  led  to  a  general  European  war  on  behalf  of  the 
rival  claims  of  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs  and  French  Bourbons.  The 
Spanish  Hapsburg  inheritance  was  claimedl)y  the  second  son  of  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  Charles — in  order  to  propitiate  the  public  senti- 
ment of  Europe,  which  was  opposed  to  a  reunion  of  the  monarchy 
of  Charles  V.  But  the  second  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  was  heir  by 
the  will  of  the  Spanish   king.     He  was  favorably  received  by  tlie 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURA.  ^55 

Spaniards,  had  taken  possession  peacefully  of  his  kingdom  and  its 
dependencies.  He  had  also  abandoned  any  pretensions  to  the 
French  throne  which  might  unite  France  and  Spain  under  a  single 
king.  A  large  part  of  Europe  was,  however,  opposed,  in  view  of  the 
immense  power  of  France  under  Louis  XIV.  and  its  various  con- 
quests and  aggressions,  to  the  union  under  a  French  dynasty  of 
Spain,  Belgium,  Milan,  Naples,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  the  American 
Colonies — all  this  was  involved  in  the  Spanish  inheritance  (p.  354). 

France,  under  Louis  XIV.,  had,  moreover,  favored  the  Stuart 
cause  in  England  against  the  House  of  Orange  (William  III.,  king 
of  England  since  1688).  Both  England  and  Holland,  whose  interests 
were  united  under  William  III.  (previously  the  Dutch  Stadtholder 
or  President),  therefore  feared  the  further  aggrandizement  of  France 
as  a  menace  to  his  rule.  Holland  and  England  were  also  inspired 
by  colonial  and  commercial  jealousy. 

The  Duchy  of  Savoy  also  took  part  in  the  armed  opposition 
to  Louis  XIV.  Its  position,  controlling  the  passes  from  France  into 
Italy,  gave  this  State  importance,  and  it  feared  the  establishment  of 
French  power  on  its  eastern  border,  which  would  result  from  inherit- 
ing the  Spanish  territory  of  Milan. 

Prussia,  Austria,  England,  Holland,  Savoy,  were  thus 
combined  against  the  Spaniards  and  French,  with  whom  Bavaria 
sided.  In  the  Turkish  wars  the  lUistrian  General  Prince  Eugene 
had  developed  a  marvelous  military  genius.  To  his  weight  was  added 
that  of  the  great  English  General,  Marlborough,  while  the  greatest 
generals  of  Louis  XIV.  were  dead. 

Battles  of  the  "war  were  fought  in  Spain,  North  Italy,  South 
Germany,  and  the  Netherlands.  Generally  these  battles  were  crush- 
ing defeats  for  the  French,  whose  energies  had  been  exhausted  in 
three  preceding  wars  under  Louis  XIV.  The  most  humiliating 
offers  were  at  last  made  by  this  king  for  peace  and  refused.  The 
dismemberment  and  destruction  of  France  were  in  prospect,  when 
the  tenacity  of  Spain,  the  disgrace  of  Marlborough,  and  the  death  of 
Joseph  I.  (which  raised  hii  brother  to  the  Imperial  throne,  thus 


256  GERMANY. 

])reparing  a  revival  of  the  monarchy  of  Charles  V.  if  his  claim  were 
successful),  secured  the  Peace  of  Utrecht. 

MAP  EXPLANATION  FOR  THE  PEACE  OP  UTBECHT  AND  CHANQES  OF  1720  AND  1738. 

Compare  Europe  in  1648  with  Europe  in  1713. 

The  Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  accepted  by  Austria  (at  Eastadt  in  Baden)  a  year  later, 
gave  her  the  Southern  Netherlands  (Belgium),  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sardinia.  See  the  Hapsburg 
color  without  the  Spanish  cross-lmes.  The  French  dynasty  retamed  Spain  and  the  American 
Colonies.  See  French  color  in  Spain.  Thus  was  founded,  by  Philip  V.,  the  line  of  Spanish 
Bourbons,  still  ruling  Spain. 

Sicily  was  ceded  to  the  Duchy  of  Savoy  (see  the  color),  but  was  transferred  to  Austria,  in 
1720,  in  exchange  for  Sardinia  and  the  royal  title  (origin  of  the  royal  line  of  modern  Italy— the 
kings  of  "Sardinia  "  and  Savoy).  See  color  of  Sardinia,  map  for  1748.  Sicily  and  Naples  were 
receded  by  Austria  to  Spain  in  1738.  See  color  on  map  for  1748.  This  loss  was,  however, 
balanced  by  the  gain  of  Tuscany,  where  the  line  of  the  Medici  (p.  232)  expired  in  1737.  See 
Austrian  color  in  Tuscany,  map  for  1748. 

Thus  Belgium  and  Milan  (see  color),  after  1713,  and  Tuscany  after  1738,  were  Aus- 
trian possessions  (the  latter  ruled  by  a  branch  Austrian  line). 

The  territorial  changes  of  1738  were  the  result  of  the  war  of  the  Polish  Succession, 
in  which  France,  Sardinia  (Savoy),  and  Spain  had  supported  the  cause  of  the  father-in-law  of  the 
French  king  Louis  XV.,  Stanislaus  Leczinski,  a  Polish  noble— while  Austria  and  Russia  sup- 
ported the  cause  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Both  had  been  elected  to  the  Polish  monarchy  by 
different  parties  in  Poland.  The  Saxon  Elector,  Augustus  lU.,  obtained  the  Polish  crown. 
Stanislaus  Leczinski  was  indemnified  with  Lorraine,  which  was  to  pass  at  his  death  to  France 
(see  French  color  of  Lorraine  in  1748),  and  Francis  of  Lorraine,  husband  of  the  Austrian  heiress, 
Maria  Theresa,  was  indemnified  with  Tuscany  (Peace  of  Vienna,  1738). 

War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. — The  death  of  the  Haps- 
burg Emperor  Charles  VI.  in  1740,  without  male  heirs,  was  again 
the  cause  of  a  general  European  war.  For  many  years  liis  policy  had 
been  directed  toward  securing  the  undisturbed  succession  of  his 
daughter  Maria  Theresa.  His  cession  of  Naples  and  Sicily  to  Spain 
and  his  support  of  the  Saxon  Elector  in  the  Polish  Succession  had 
been  prompted  by  the  wish  to  secure  the  support  of  other  European 
powers  to  this  end.  But  the  moment  of  his  death  was,  notwith- 
standing, the  signal  for  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  1740  to 
1748. 

Rival  Parties.  —  England  and  Holland  supported  Austria. 
France,  Spain,  Saxony,  Prassia,  and  Bavaria  were  leagued  against 
her.  It  was  not  generally  believed  tlmt  Maria  Theresa  could  in  any 
case  hold  her  States  together,  and  each  foreign  power  had  interest 


EIGHTEENTH    CENIURY. 


257 


in  some  particular  portion  of  her  territories.  France  wanted  the 
adjacent  Austrian  Netherlands,  L  e.,  Belgium;  Spain  wanted  to 
recover  Milan  ;  Bavaria,  having  gained  the  Imperial  dignity 
(Charles  VII.,  1741  to  1745),  wanted  Austria  proper  or  Bohemia. 
The  ambition  of  Prussia  alone  was  successful. 

Frederick  the  Great,  king  of  Prussia  after  1740,  conquered 
Silesia  and  kept  it  by  the  mediation  of  England. 

Th.e  participation  of  Eng-land  in  these  Continental  affairs  was  partly  caused  by  the 
fact  that  her  kings  since  1714  were  the  Electors  of  Hanover,  with  German  interests  and  terri- 
tory to  protect  and  enlarge. 
(See  English  color  in  Bruns- 
wick-Ltoehurg,  or  Hanover, 
on  map  for  1748.)  Her  league 
with  Austria  was  also  owing 
to  her  colonial  jealousy  of  the 
French  and  Spaniards,  who 
were  for  the  time  heing  the 
enemies  of  Austria. 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle.— Frederick  the  Great 
retired  from  the  war  in  1742 
with  Silesia  (Peace  of  Breslau). 
(See  Prussian  color  in  Silesia, 
map  for  1748.)  He  re-entered 
the  war  in  1744  and  1745,  and 
again  made  peace  on  the  old 
conditions. 

A  general  Peace  was  made 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  This  peace  was,  however,  simply  a  truce.  Maria  Theresa  was  a 
sovereign  of  great  personal  popularity,  especially  in  Hungary  (which  had  not  always  been  so 
devoted  to  its  German  rulers).  Her  husband,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  brought  back  the  Imperial 
dignity  to  the  Austrian  House  in  1745,  as  Emperor  Francis  I.  Meantime  the  power  of  Prussia 
under  Frederick  the  Gi*eat  had  a\^'akened  the  jealousy  of  Europe  by  a  standing  army  of  150,000 
men.    But  England  now  supported  him,  to  antagonize  France  and  Spain. 

Seven  Years'  War. — The  Empress  was  bent  on  the  recovery 
of  Silesia.  To  secure  this  end  she  allied  with  her  late  enemies, 
France  and  Spain,  in  1756.  Russia  also  joined  this  coaHtion,  to- 
gether with  Saxony  and  Sweden.  Thus  Frederick,  supported 
only  by  British  subsidies,  had  the  whole  of  Europe  against  him. 
Although  his  heroic  genius  and  undeniable  personal  greatness 
gained    him  everywhere  sympathizers,  the  dismemberment  of  the 


Officers  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
{Design  by  Menzel.) 


258 


GERMANY. 


Prussian  monarchy  was  the  avowed  aim  of  his  enemies.  At  the 
most  critical  moment  of  the  war,  after  many  victories  as  well  as 
crashing  defeats,  he  was  saved  by  the  death  of  the  Russian  Empress 
Elizabeth.  Her  successors,  Peter  III.  and  Catherine  II.,  withdrew 
the  Russian  armies  from  Germany. 

The  Peace  of  Hubertsburg  (in  Saxony),  1763,  gave  Europe 
rest  till  the  French  Revolution  of  1789. 

The  contemporary  Peace  of  Paris,  which  closed  the  Seven  Years'  War  as  regards  England 
and  Prance,  is  noted  under  the  histories  of  these  countries,  and  estahlished  important  changes. 

This  peace  raised  Prussia  to  the  rank  of  one  of  the  five  Great 
Powers  of  Europe,  the  others  being  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia, 
and  France.  The  province  of  Silesia,  which  belongs  by  configura- 
tion and  drainage  to  North  Germany,  increased  the  riches  and  popu- 
lation of  Prussia  by  about  one-third,  and  the  First  Division  of  Po- 
land, 1772,  closed  the  gap  between  the  province  of  Prussia  proper 

and  the  Pomeranian 
and  Silesian  provinces. 
Austria  and  Russia 
shared  in  this  division, 
as  in  the  two  later 
ones  (after  Frederick's 
death  in  1786)  of  1793, 
and  1795.  The  gain  of 
Galicia  by  the  first 
division  was  permanent 
for  Austria ;  the  later 
divisions  were  modified 
by  the  changes  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

Divisions  of  Poland.— 

The  history  of  the  whole  18th 

century  is  inspired  by  dynastic 

and  national  selflphness.    The  lack  of  principle  and  of  chivalry  in  its  contests  render)*  their 

details  nninteresting,  altbongli  the  territorial  changes  have  the  greatest  importance  for  the  cora- 

prehensou  of  later  history.    The  dismemberment  of  Prance  (Spanish  Saccessiou),  of  *uBtrta, 


Palace  at  Potsdam.     Bnilt  by  Frederick  the  Great. 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  259 

of  Prussia,  were  successively  attempted.  Only  that  of  Poland  succeeded.  Its  government  by 
elective  monarchy  exposed  the  country  to  constant  party  quarrels.  In  its  diets  the  right  of 
liberum  veto—i.  e.,  the  right  of  any  one  member  to  veto  a  law— was  recognized.  Hence  anarchy 
and  consequent  weakness. 

Prussia  under  Frederick  the  G-reat.— Amid  the  universal  selfishness  of  the  18th 
century  dynasties,  the  rule  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  always  despotic,  sometimes 
unscrupulous,  exhibits  decided  elements  of  greatness.  In  his  zeal  for  industry  he  forced  the 
apple-women  of  Berlin  to  knit  at  their  stalls  ;  but  he  announced  the  principle  that  the  monarch 
is  the  servant  of  his  State.  When  the  Jesuits  were  driven  from  all  other  European  countries, 
they  found  protection  and  patronage  with  him  and  with  Catherine  II.  of  Russia.  Both  these 
sovereigns  knew  how  to  value  their  zeal  and  ability  in  education.  In  conceding  this  political 
greatness  to  Prussia,  its  barrenness  in  intellectual  and  artistic  interest  is  also  to  be  conceded. 
Only  in  the  19th  century  has  this  country  shaken  off  its  coarseness  and  barbarism. 

Th.e  Electorate  of  Saxony  was  the  most  important  centre  of  artistic  interests  and 
liberal  education  for  Germany  during  the  18th  century,  before  1775.  Here  were  collected,  soon 
after  1750,  most  of  the  valued  treasures  of  the  famous  Dresden  Gallery  of  Paintings.  Of 
Saxon  birth  was  the  great  German  critic,  Lessing. 

Vienna,  by  its  connection  with  Italy,  was  an  important  seat  of  musical  culture. 

The  little  State  of  Saxe-Weimar  became  the  intellectual  centre  of  Germany  after 
1775,  and  was  distinguished  as  the  residence  of  the  great  poets  Goethe  (GaytS)  and  Schiller. 

In  Music  the  glorious  names  of  Sebastian  Bach  (BShk),  of  Hayden  (Hiden),  Gluck,  Beet- 
hoven (BaythOven),  and  Mozart,  belong  to  18th  century  Germany. 

Map  Study.— Aix-la-Chapelle,  Breslau,  Hubertsburg;  see  "Europe  in  1748,"  p.  256. 
Galicia,  see  "  Europe  in  1816."  Potsdam  is  near  Berlin,  map  at  p.  254.  "Weimar,  see  "  Europe 
in  1810." 

The  following  geographical  references  are  for  the  table  on  the  next  page.  See  "  Europe  in 
1713,"  p.  254,  for  Blenheim,  Gibraltar,  Ramillies  (section  map),  Turin,  Madrid,  Barcelona, 
Almanza,  Oudenarde  (section  map),  Malplaquet  (section  map),  Villa  Viciosa,  Utrecht  (section 
map).    See  map  at  p.  256  for  Rossbach. 

For  Division  of  Poland  compare  map  for  1748  with  map  for  1816  (and  see  Russian  history). 
The  arrangements  of  the  intervening  map  for  1810  were  not  permanent. 

GERMAN   WARS   OF  THE   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Spanish  Succession  War.    Peace  of  Utrecht a.  d.  1700-1713 

Polish  Succession.    Peace  of  Vienna "     1733-1738 

Austrian  Succession.    Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  "     1740-1748 

Seven  Years' War.    Peace  of  Hubertsburg  and  Paris "     1756-1763 

Wars  of  the  French  Revolution "  1792-(1815) 

KINGS   OF   PRUSSIA   IN   THE   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Frederick  I. a.  d.  1701-1713 

(He  had  succeeded  the  Great  Elector  Frederick  William  in  1688  as  Elector  Frederick  IV.) 

Frederick  William  I.,  son  of  the  foregoing A.  d.  1713-1740 

Frederick  II.  the  Great,  son  of  the  foregoing "     1740-1786 

Frederick  William  II.,  nephew  of  the  foregoing "     1786-1797 

Frederick  William  III.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1797-(1840) 


260  aERMANV. 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  GERMANY  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  .CENTURY. 

Death  of  Charles  11.  of  Spain  (causes  the  Spanish  Succession  War) a.  d.  1700 

Frederick  I.  King  of  "Prussia" "  1701 

Anne,  Queen  of  England,  after "  1702 

Marlborough's  victory  of  Blenheim "  1704 

Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English  (ceded  to  England  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht) "      " 

Death  of  Leopold  I. ;  accession  of  Joseph  I "  1705 

Marlborough's  victory  of  Ramillies "  1706 

Prince  Eugene's  victory  of  Turin "      " 

The  Austrian  "  Charles  HI.  of  Spain  "  lands  in  Portugal  and  conquers  Madrid "  1707 

The  Spaniards  confine  him  to  Barcelona  by  the  victory  of  Almauza "      " 

Victory  of  Oudenarde  (won  by  Prince  Eugene  and  Marlborough) ^ "  1708 

Victory  of  Malplaqnet;  Marlborough "  1709 

"  Charles  III. "  reconquers  Madrid "  1710 

Spanish  victory  of  Villa  Viciosa  confines  him  once  more  to  Barcelona "  1711 

Death  of  Emperor  Joseph  I.  places  Charles  VI.  on  the  throne  of  the  Empire.  )  ^^ 

Threatened  reunion  of  the  monarchy  of  Charles  V.  ( 

Disgrace  of  Marlborough "       " 

These  events  lead  to  the  Peace  of  Utrecht "  1713 

Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia  succeeds  Frederick  I "      " 

Death  of  Louis  XIV. ;  Accession  of  Louis  XV T "  1715 

Death  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden "  1718 

Dukes  of  Savoy  made  Kings  of  Sardinia '    "  1720 

Death  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia "  1725 

War  of  the  Polish  Succession  opens "  1733 

Closed  by  the  Peace  of  Vienna "  1738 

Frederick  II.  the  Great,  King  of  Prussia , "  1740 

Death  of  Charles  VI.  of  the  Empire "       " 

Succession  of  Maria  Theresa  in  Austria.    War  of  the  Austrian  Succession "       " 

Peace  of  Breslau.    Silesia  to  Prussia "  1748 

Peace  of  Dresden.    Silesia  confirmed  to  Prussia "  1745 

Peace  of  Aix-la  Chapelle  closes  the  Austrian  Succession  War.    No  changes "  1748 

Seven  Years'  War  begins ♦'  1756 

Prussian  Victory  of  Rossbach »•  1757 

Peace  of  Hubertsburg  ends  the  war  for  Austria  and  Prussia "  1768 

Peace  of  Paris  ends  the  war  for  England,  France,  and  Spain "       " 

Death  of  Emperor  Francis  I.    Accession  of  Joseph  II "  1765 

First  Division  of  Poland "  1772 

Death  of  Frederick  the  Great.    Accession  of  Frederick  William  II "  1786 

French  Revolution  begins "  1789 

Death  of  Joseph  n.    Accession  of  Leopold  U "  1790 

Death  of  Leopold  IL    Accession  of  Francis  II "  1792 

Wars  of  the  French  Revolution  in  Germany  open  "       '* 

Second  Division  of  Poland "  1793 

Prussia  abandons  the  war  on  France.    Peace  of  Basle "  1794 

Third  Division  of  Poland "  1795 


QUESTIONS    ON    PRUSSIA    AND    AUSTRIA.         261 

QUESTIONS    FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

FIRST  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  territory  unites  Brandenburg  and  Silesia  witli  Prussia  proper  ?  Compare  "Europe  in 
1748"  witli  "  Europe  in  1816." 

When  acquired  ?    (P.  258.) 

How  much  increase  to  Prussia  by  Silesia  ?    (P.  258.)    When  ?     (P.  257.) 

What  territory  occupied  by  Prussia  before  1713,  passed  by  treaty  from  Sweden  to  Prussia  in 
1720  ?    Am.  Part  of  Swedish  Pomerania.    Compare  maps  for  1648  and  1748. 

What  was  gained  by  this  acquisition  ?  'Ans.  Control  of  the  mouth  of  the  Oder. 

What  territory  does  the  Oder  drain  ?    Ans.  Silesia. 

When  did  Prussia  obtain  the  royal  title  ? 

What  did  Prussia  gain  in  1648  ?    (P.  253.) 

In  1627  ?    (P.  253.) 

When  were  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  united  under  one  ruler  ?    (P.  253.) 

When  did  "  Prassia  "  come  under  a  l)ranch  of  the  Hohenzollerns  ?    (P.  238.) 

When  was  Brandenburg  acquired  ?    (P.  166.) 

What  Hohenzollern  territories  were  held  in  South  Germany  till  1816  ?    (P.  166.) 

When  acquired  ?    (P.  166.) 

Where  is  Hohenzollern  ?    (P.  166,  and  map,  p.  200.) 

Why  are  the  successive  steps  in  the  rise  of  Prussia  so  important  ?  Am.  Because  they  have 
continued  until,  in  the  19th  century,  Prussia  supplanted  Austria  in  the  control  of  Germany, 
and  under  her  influence  the  German  states  have  been  consolidated. 

How  has  Prussia  exercised  the  ascendency  acquired  in  Germany  ?  Am.  With  great  arro- 
gance, especially  in  her  conduct  to  the  Roman  Church. 

How  may  the  study  of  history  be  a  warning  for  individual  conduct  ?  Am.  Almost  every 
nation  which  has  risen  to  great  power  has  sacrificed  its  position  and  lost  its  ascendency  by 
pride  and  over-confidence,  and  a  nation  is  composed  of  individuals. 

SECOND  REVIEW  LESSON. 

To  what  kingdom  had  Silesia  belonged  ?    (P.  243,  and  map  for  1713.) 

When  did  Bohemia  and  Hungary  become  Austrian  possessions  ?  (P.  2-33,  and  map  for  1550.) 

When  was  Hungary  united  with  Bohemia  ?    (P.  166,  and  map  for  1400.) 

Who  founded  the  line  of  Luxemburg-Bohemia  ?    (P.  165.) 

To  what  inheritance  had  Brandenburg  belonged  when  transferred  to  the  Hohenzollerns  by 
Sigismund  ?    (P.  166,  and  map  for  1400.) 

Who  were  the  English  contemporaries  of  Frederick  the  Great?  Am.  George  II.  and 
George  III. 

French  contemporaries  ?    Am.  Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XVI. 

What  emperor  died  in  the  year  of  Frederick's  accession  ?    (Chronology,  p.  260.) 

Who  was  the  daughter  of  this  emperor  ?    How  did  she  become  an  empress  ?   (P.  257.) 

What  territories  became  Austrian  possessions  in  the  18th  century  without  re-transfer  1 
Am.  Belg-ium,  Milan,  and  Tuscany.    See  p.  256.  and  maps  for  1713  and  1748. 

What  territories  gained  by  Austria  were  re-transferred  ? 


262 


GERMANY. 


Who  were  French  sovereigns  in  the  18th  century?  Am.  Louis XIV.,  Louis  XV.,  Louis  XVI. 

Which  of  them  obtained  "  Lorraine  "  from  the  "  Empire  "  ?    (P.  256.)    How  ?    When  ? 

What  is  meant  by  England's  "  colonial  jealousy  "  ?  (P.  257.)  Am.  Jealousy  of  the  French 
in  North  America  (p.  28T),  of  the  Spanish- American  trade,  and  of  the  French  in  Hindoostan. 

Who  were  English  sovereigns  in  the  18th  century  ?  Am.  William  III.  for  two  years,  Anne, 
George  L,  George  H.,  George  HE. 

What  other  title  and  power  had  the  last  three  ?  Am.  Electors  of  Hanover.  The  House 
cf  Hanover  came  to  the  English  tlirone  with  George  I.  in  1714. 

When  was  the  House  of  Hanover  fotmded  ?    (P.  162.) 

When  were  England  and  Hanover  separated?  Am.  At  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria 
in  1837. 

What  is  the  first  event  in  point  of  time  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  ?  A7i8.  Braddock's  defeat 
at  Fort  Duquesne  in  1754— the  fonnal  declaration  of  war  not  made  till  two  years  later. 

How  many  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution  did  the  American  Revolu- 
tion end  ?    (P.  260,) 

How  many  years  before  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  is  the  American  Declaration 
of  Independence  in  1776  ?     (Chronology,  p.  260.) 

How  many  years  before  his  death  is  the  Independence  of  the  American  Colonies  in  1783  ? 

How  many  years  after  the  Seven  Years'  War  ended  (p.  260)  did  the  American  Revolution 
begin  ? 

What  Russian  Tzar  died  in  1725  ?    (Chronology,  p  260.)    What  Swedish  king  died  in  1718  ? 

What  did  Prussia  gain  in  consequence  ?  Am.  The  territory  mentioned  in  a  preceding 
question  relating  to  1720. 

What  did  England  gain  in  consequence  ?  Am.  The  addition  (by  treaty)  of  Bishoprics 
Bremen  and  Verden  (conquered  before  1713)  to  Hanover,  and  consequent  control  of  the  Elbe. 

(On  map  for  1648,  see  Swedish  color  at  mouth  of  the  Elbe  for  Bremen  and  Verden.  On  map 
for  1713,  see  dimension  of  Brunswick-Lflneburg  or  Hanover.) 


SIMPLIFIED  TABLE  OF  GERMAN  HISTORY  FROM  1500  TO  1800. 


Accession  of  Charles  V A 

Division  of  his  Monarchy 

Revolt  of  tlie  Netherlands  under  Philip  II 

Thirty  Years'  War,  after 

Peace  of  Westphalia 

The  Great  Elector  obtains  the  sovereignty  of  "  Prussia  "  free  from 

feudal  dependence  on  Poland 

Kingdom  of  Prussia  after - 

Peace  of  Utrecht 

Peace  of  Vienna 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 

Peace.of  Hubertsburg  and  Paris 

Death  of  Frederick  the  Great 


D.  1519 
1556 
1566 
1618 
1648 

1657 
1701 
1713 
1738 
1748 
1703 
1786 


IMPORTANT  SYNCHRONISMS.         26S 


IMPORTANT  SYNCHRONISMS. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England 1558 

When  did  Charles  V.  die  ? 

When  did  Philip  II.  of  Spain  begin  his  reign  ? 

When  did  Ferdinand  I.  of  the  Empire  begin  his  reign  ? 

Execution  of  Charles  I.  of  England , 1649 

When  was  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  concluded  ? 

When  was  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV.  ?    (See  forward,  p.  2TO.) 

George  III.,  King  of  England 1760 

How  is  this  date  related  to  the  accession  of  Frederick  the  Great  ? 
To  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  ? 

The  later  history  of  Germany  is  connected  with  that  of  the  other  modern  states,  under  the 
heading  of  the  "  French  Revolution  and  later  Modern  History  of  Western  Europe." 


FRANCE 

AFTER  1500. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

FRENCH     SOVEREIGNS     OF    THE    16th    CENTURY. 

Louis  XII.  (Genealogy,  p.  212). a.  d.  (1498)-1515 

Francis  I.  (Genealogy,  p.  212) "  1515-1547 

Henry  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1547-1559 

Francis  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1559-1560 

Charles  IX.,  brother  of  the  foregoing "  1560-1 574 

Henry  III.,  brother  of  the  foregoing *'  1574-1589 

Henry  IV.  of  Navarre  (Bourbon  line) "  1589-(1610) 

Louis  XII.,  1498-1515,  was  an  economical  and  wise  ruler.  His 
internal  administration  received  the  reward  of  national  appreciation 
which  it  deserved,  and  was  marked  by  that  absence  of  "  events " 
which  is  a  certain  indication  of  national  happiness  and  prosperity. 

Italian  Conquests.— The  French  were  expelled  in  1512  from  their  occupation  of  Milan 
(p.  220)  only  to  return  in  the  first  year  of  the  following  reign.  The  same  impulse  which  drew 
expedition  after  expedition  into  Italy  from  Germany  in  the  time  of  Otto  I.  or  Barbarossa,  was 
now  drawing  France  and  Spain  in  the  same  direction.  In  our  own  time  this  charm  of  Italy 
still  exerts  itself  on  foreigners.  We  see  now  armies  of  travelers  instead  of  armies  of  soldiers, 
but  the  attraction  is  the  same,  and  the  influence  of  Italy  exerts  itself  now,  as  it  did  then,  on 
the  stranger  who  beholds  this  country. 

Italian  Influence.— Because  the  stream  of  travel  took  the  form  of  armed  expeditions, 
we  must  not  suppose  thac  bloodshed  and  carnage  were  the  rule.  From  all  complications  of 
parties  and  diplomacy  one  general  result  was  always  the  same— viz.,  increase  of  Italian  influ- 
ence on  the  habits,  fashions,  and  learning  of  France. 

Architectural  styles  are  the  surest  indication  of  general  aspects  of  civilization,  and  in  no 
country  was  the  Gtothic  so  quickly  and  so  thoroughly  overthrown  in  favor  of  Italian  "  Renais- 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 


265 


sance"  fashions  in  architecture  as  in  the  country  which  invented  the  Gothic.  The  "Renais- 
sance" in  architecture  is  the  Italian  Revival  of  Roman-Greek  architectural  forms.  Com- 
pare the  Palace  of  the  Louvre  with  the  same  Italian  style  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  Contrast 
with  the  Gothic,  pp.  189, 197. 

Francis  I.,  1515-1547,  continued  the  Italian  policy  of  his 
predecessor^  and  in  1515  re-entered  Milan  after  the  battle  of  Ma- 
rignano,  holding  the  ducliy  till  1522.  The  campaigns  in  Italy  after 
1521,  during  the  long- 
rivalry  with  Charles 
v.,  have  been  already 
summarized  under  this 
reign.  Francis  was 
a  brilliant  and  showy 
personality,  prodigal 
and  brave,  a  patron 
of  Italian  art  and 
letters.  He  brought 
the  artists  Benvenuto 
Cellini  and  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  to  France, 
and  many  of  their 
countrymen.  Da  Vinci 
is  said  to  have  died 
in  his  arms. 

Henry  II.,  his  son,  1547-1559,  continued  the  connection  with 
Italy,  by  marriage  before  accession  with  Catharine  de  Medici,  a 
Florentine  princess.  He  attacked  the  Germanic  Empire,  in  alli- 
ance with  the  Protestants,  during  the  Smalcaldian  war,  and  con- 
quered, in  1552,  the  Bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.  It  was 
to  chastise  this  assault  that  Charles  V.  made  the  peace  of  Passau 
(p.  235),  in  order  that  his  hands  might  be  free  for  a  determined  siege 
of  Metz.  But  he  could  not  retake  this  stronghold  (lost  to  France 
in  1871).  The  war  outlasted  his  abdication,  and  was  inherited  by 
Phihp  II. 

The  generals  of  Philip  II.  gained  for  hiin  the  brilliant  victory 


Portion  of  the  Palace  of  the  Lot 


century. 


268  FRANCE. 

the  crown  was  a  Protestant — Henry,  the  king  of  Navarre.    (Navarre 
was  a  small  State  on  the  borders  of  France  and  Spain.) 

The  claim  of  Henry  of  Navarre  to  the  Crown  was  derived  from  Robert  of  Cler- 
mont, the  brother  of  Louis  IX.,  and  founder  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  by  marriage  with  its 
heiress.  Antony,  the  father  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  had  married  Jeanne  d'Albret,  Queen  of  the 
little  kingdom  of  Navarre,  whence  Henry's  possession  of  that  State.  The  family  of  Bourbon 
had  been  in  disgi-ace  since  the  time  of  Francis  I.,  when  the  Constable  of  Bourbon  took  service 
against  his  country  as  a  general  of  Charles  V.  and  was  killed  before  the  walls  of  Rome  in  1527. 
The  Bourbon  estates,  the  Bourbonnais  and  Marche,  were  confiscated  in  1531.  The  Constable 
left  no  direct  heirs.  Antony  of  Navarre  was  descended  from  a  parallel  branch  of  the  Bourbon 
line,  the  Counts  of  Marche.  Henry  of  Navarre  had  married  Margaret  of  Valois,  sister  of 
Charles  IX.,  just  before  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Pope  Sixtus  V.  declared  that  a  Protestant  could  not  inherit 
the  crown  of  France,  and  Henry  was  excommunicated.  A  Catholic 
league  was  formed,  which  proposed  to  depose  Henry  III.  He  had 
lost  the  respect  of  the  nation  by  his  profligacy.  The  head  of  this 
league  was  the  Duke  of  Guise,  son  of  the  duke  already  named, 
called  Balafre  from  a  scar  on  the  cheek.  He  proposed  to  take  the 
throne,  in  default  of  a  better  claim,  as  the  heir  of  Charlemagne 
through  the  line  of  Lorraine.  Henry  of  Navarre  was  himself  re- 
moved by  twenty-two  degrees  of  affinity  from  the  sovereign. 

Thus  there  were  three  parties  in  France — the  Protestant, 
headed  by  Henry  of  Navarre  after  the  death  of  his  uncle  Conde ; 
the  Catholic  league;  and  the  king's  party,  the  weakest  of  all. 
Henry  III.  caused  the  assassination  of  the  Balafre.  The  odium 
of  this  act  forced  him  into  the  alliance  of  the  Protestants,  but 
he  found  his  own  death  also  by  assassination  as  he  was  preparing 
to  besiege  Paris. 

Henry  IV.,  1589-1610,  had  his  kingdom  and  capital  still  to 
conquer.  He  was  a  gallant  soldier,  but  his  faith  could  not  be 
allowed  to  control  the  destinies  of  France.  The  dilemma  was  partly 
solved  in  1593  by  his  conversion,  although  the  Pope  (Clement  VIII.) 
refused  for  some  time  to  withdraw  his  sentence,  and  did  not  accord 
him  absolution  till  two  years  later.  The  Protestants  were  conceded 
extraordinary  political  privileges  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1598,  which 
closed  the  Huguenot  wars. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 


269 


Map  Study  for  "  Europe  iu  1550,"  p.  328.  Marignano  is  on  the  section  map  for  Northeast 
Italy.  Metz  ;  Toul ;  Verdun.  (St.  Quentin  in  northern  France  ie  entered  on  the  map  for  1648, 
p.  250).  Calais.  (Cateau  Cambresis,  in  northern  France,  is  entered  on  the  map  for  1648.)  King- 
dom of  Navarre,  see  map  for  1400,  p.  300,  and  1550.  The  Bourbon  possessions  are  light  red 
on  the  map  for  1550.    Nantes  is  on  the  Loire. 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  FRENCH    HISTORY    IN  THE  SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 


Battle  of  Ravenna ;  French  victory  over  the  Italian  league,  but  the  death  of  the 
French  commander  Gaston  de  Foix  caused  the  evacuation  of  Milan  (p.  230)  —  A. 

French  reinvasion  of  Italy.    Defeat  of  Novara.     Consequent  expulsion 

Accession  of  Francis  I.    French  victory  of  Marignano  

Tournament  of  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Friendly  meeting  of  Francis  I.  with 
Henry  VIII.  of  England 

Wars  with  Charles  V.  (p.  331)  begin 

French  defeat  of  Pavia  (p.  232) 

Peace  of  Madrid  (p.  232) 

Second  War  with  Charles  V.  and  Sack  of  Rome  (p.  232) 

Peace  of  Cambrai 

Calvin's  influence  on  France  (p.  238)  after 

Third  War  for  Milan  (p.  232) 

Truce  of  Nice 

Fourth  War  for  Milan  (p.  232) 

Peace  of  Crespy 

Accession  of  Henry  11. 

He  enters  the  Smalcaldian  War 

Conquers  Metz,  Toul  and  Verdun. 

French  defeat  of  St.  Quentin 

Peace  of  Cateau  Cambresis.    Accession  of  Francis  U 

Accession  of  Charles  IX 

Huguenot  Wars  begin 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 

Accession  of  Henry  III 

Accession  of  Henry  IV 

Edict  of  Nantes  closes  the  Huguenot  wars , 


1512 
1513 
1515 


1521 
1525 
1526 
1527 
1529 
1535 
1536 
153S 
1542 
1.541 
1547 
1551 
15.52 
1558 
1559 
1560 
1562 
1572 
1574 
1589 
1598 


SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 


In  what  French  reign  was  the  fourth  voyage  of  Columbus  ?    (P.  227.) 

The  voyage  of  Magellan  ?   (P.  228.)    The  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru  for  Spain  ?    (P.  228.) 

What  general  features  of  European  history  in  the  16th  century  ?    (P.  236.) 

How  long  after  the  accession  of  Francis  I.  occurred  the  Diet  of  Worms  ?    (P.  239.) 

When  did  he  fail  to  secure  the  Imperial  dignity  ?    (P.  230.) 

In  what  French  reign  was  the  word  Protestant  first  used?    (P.  246.) 

Who  was  the  English  contemporary  of  Francis  I.  ?    (P.  330.) 

What  two  sovereigns  died  in  1547  ?    (P.  239.) 


270  FRANCE. 

What  were  the  causes  of  the  French  rivalry  with  Spain  ?    (P.  231.) 

Why  did  Henry  n.  enter  the  Smalcaldian  War  ?  Ans.  From  this  same  rivalry— the  wish  to 
cripple  the  Emperor. 

What  Peace  resulted?    (P.  266.) 

In  what  French  reign  did  the  Council  of  Trent  adjourn  ?    (P,  239,) 

How  long  before  Henry  H.  did  Luther  die  ?    (P.  239.) 

In  what  French  reign  occurred  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  ?  (P.  239.)  The  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands?    (P.  245.) 

What  sovereign  died  in  the  year  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ?    (P.  247.) 

What  English  sovereign  began  to  reign  in  1558  ?    (P.  239.) 

In  what  French  reign  ? 

Through  what  French  reigns  did  Elizabeth  continue  ?    (She  was' Queen  till  1603.) 

Name  the  (Jermanic  Emperors  of  the  16th  century.    (P.  243.) 

What  additions  to  the  French  monarchy  in  the  16th  century  ?    (Pp.  265.  268.) 

What  style  of  architecture  was  adopted  in  France  in  this  period  ? 

What  style  did  it  replace  ? 

In  what  French  reign  was  begun  St.  Peter's  at  Kome  ?    (P.  217.) 

In  what  French  reign  did  England  abandon  the  Eoman  Church  (1534)  ? 

In  what  French  reign  were  the  Hapsburg  possessions  divided  ?    (P.  235.) 

Name  the  English  sovereigns  of  the  16th  century.    (Pp.  239,  246.) 

SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

FRENCH   SOVEREIGNS   OF  THE  17th   CENTURY. 

Henry  IV a.  d.  (1589)-1610 

Louis  XIII.,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1610-1643 

Louis  XIV.,  son  of  the  foregoing "    1643-<1715) 

DESCENT  OF  HENRY  IV. 

Louis  IX. 

Younger  son,  Robert  of  Clermont = Beatrice,  heiress  of  Bourbon. 

Louis  of  Bourbon. 

\ 

I  I 

Line  ending  with  the  Constable  of  Bourbon,  1527.  James,  Count  of  Marcho. 

John,  Count  of  Marche. 

1 

Louis  of  Vendome.    James,  Count  of  Marche 

John 

Francis. 

Charles. 
I 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  Queen  of  Navarre = Antony,  11562. 

Henry  IV.,  King  of  Navarre  and  France. 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


271 


Henry  IV.  and  Maria  de  Medici. 
( Old  medal.) 


The  Reign  of  Henry  IV.  continued  till  1610.  He  was  a 
character  of  great  force,  and  a  true  Frenchman.  Of  a  genial  and 
gallant  nature,  he  quickly  won  the  affec- 
tion of  his  subjects,  and  became,  per- 
haps, the  most  popular  of  all  French 
sovereigns.  The  task  of  his  reign  was 
to  bind  up  the  wounds  of  the  civil  wars, 
and  restore  prosperity  to  a  devastated 
and  impoverished  country.  In  this 
mission  he  was  supported  by  an  able 
minister,  Sully,  whose  interest  in 
manufactures,  commerce,  and  agricul- 
ture, laid  the  foundation  for  the  later 
greatness  of  France.  Canada  was  colo- 
nized and  Quebec  founded  under  his 
administration. 

There  were  no  foreign  wars  in  this  reign  (an  unimportant  con- 
test with  Spain  in  the  last  years  of  the  preceding  century  excepted), 
but  in  1610  Henry  prepared  to  take  part  in  a  disputed  German 
succession  in  the  lower  Rhine  territories.  This  dispute  concerned 
the  territories  of  Juliers,  Marck,  Cleve,  and  Berg  (it  terminated  after- 
wards in  the  acquisition  made  by  Brandenburg  in  the  year  1627), 
but  the  motive  of  Henry  was  to  attack  the  Hapsburg  ascendency  in 
the  Germanic  Empire.  The  fact  that  on  the  west  France  had  not 
yet  attained  her  natural  boundaries,  explains  this  project.  The 
Spaniards  still  threatened  the  security  of  France  by  their  possession 
of  the  Franche-Oomte  and  of  the  Belgic  Netherlands  (Spanish 
Hapsburg  portions  of  the  Germanic  Empire).  Alsace  and  Lorraine 
were  still  foreign  territories  of  the  same  empire,  into  which  the 
three  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun  projected  as  the  out- 
posts for  a  farther  advance. 

On  the  eve  of  "war,  when  all  preparations  had  been  made, 
the  king  was  assassinated,  on  the  day  after  the  coronation  of  his 
queen,  which   was  intended   to  give    additional    stability   to  her 


272  FRANCE. 

regency  in  liis  absence.  His  murderer  was  named  Francis  Eavaillac 
(Raviyak).  No  motive  for  this  assassination  could  then  be  discov- 
ered, nor  has  any  since  been  assigned.  It  is  not  impossible  that 
the  crime  was  committed  by  a  fanatical  subordinate  partisan  of  the 
parties  attacked,  to  forestall  the  anticipated  successes  of  so  great  a 
soldier. 

A  daughter  of  Henry  IV.,  Henrietta  Maria,  became  afterwards 
queen  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  St.  Francis  de  Sales  was  his 
intimate  friend. 

Paris  was  so  enlarged  and  beautified  by  Henry  rv.  that  when  the  Spanish  ambassador 
saw  it,  after  a  few  years'  absence,  he  scarcely  recognized  the  city  he  had  left  so  abject  and 
desolate.  "  You  see,"  said  Henry,  "  that  the  father  of  the  family  was  not  at  home ;  now  he  is 
here  to  care  for  his  children,  and  all  goes  well  with  them."  The  same  grave  Spaniard  one 
day  surprised  Henry  on  his  hands  and  knees,  and  the  dauphin  riding  on  his  back,  while  the 
young  Duke  of  Orleans  administered  the  whip.  "  Monsieur  Ambassador,"  said  the  king,  "are 
you  a  father  ?  "    "  Yes,  sire."    "  Then  I  may  go  on  with  my  game." 

Louis  XIII.,  1610-1643,  was  nine  years  old  at  his  accession. 
The  regency  was  conducted  by  his  mother,  Maria  de  Medici  (second 
wife  of  Henry  IV.,  after  1600).  She  in  turn  was  ruled  by  one  of 
her  female  Italian  attendants,  whose  husband, 
Concini,  thus  came  to  be  head  of  affairs — with 
the  title  of  Marshal  D'Ancre.  The  administra- 
tion of  Concini  was  antagonized  by  the  great 
nobles,  and  his  treatment  of  the  young  king 
was  disrespectful  and  overbearing.  He  was 
killed,  at  the  royal  order,  by  a  captain  of  the 

Louis  XIII.   Old  medal.       ,      ,  j    .      ^niiv 

body-guard,  m  1617. 

Concini  was  succeeded  by  a  favorite  of  the  young  Louis,  De 
Luynes  (Lean),  whose  administration  was  also  disturbed  by  dis- 
order and  outbreaks  of  the  unruly  aristocracy.  This  minister  died 
in  1620. 

Richelieu,  the  Bishop  of  Lucjon,  had  been  first  employed  in 
state  business  by  Concini,  and  after  momentary  disfavor  was  re- 
employed by  De  Luynes.      The  influence  of  Maria  de  Medici  pro- 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  273 

cured  him  the  dignity  of  Cardinal,  and  introduced  him  in  1624  to 
the  Council.  Here  lie  soon  acquired  the  supremacy  and  became  for 
eighteen  years  the  ruler  of  the  state.  Under  his  guidance,  Louis 
XIII.  was  "the  first  personage  in  Europe  and  the  second  in  France." 
The  influence  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  was  repeatedly  attacked  by 
conspiracies  and  cabals.  These  were  generally  headed  by  the  brother 
of  the  king,  Gaston,  who  was  for  a  long  time,  in  default  of  a  direct 
heir,  his  prospective  successor.  Maria  de  Medici  also  became  jealous 
of  her  former  protege,  and  took  the  side  of  the  opposition.  As 
usual  in  the  politics  of  the  time,  the  foreign  enemy  leagued  with, 
and  incited  by  intrigues,  the  domestic  revolts. 

Spain  was  this  enemy.  A  marriage  alliance  had  been  made 
with  Spain  by  Concini  (Louis  XIII.  married  a  daughter  of  Philip 
III.),  but  this  state  was  once  more  antagonized  by  the  national 
policy  of  Richelieu.  His  political  genius  was  first  apparent  in  the 
seizure  of  the  ValtelUna,  the  valley  and  pass  leading  from  Milan  to 
the  Tyrol,  by  which  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs  moved  troops  from 
Italy  into  Germany  during  the  Thirty  Years^  War. 

The  policy  of  Richelieu  had  two  aims — the  elevation  of 
the  royal  power  to  an  absolute  sovereignty,  and  the  humiliation 
of  the  national  rivals  of  France.  In  both  these  aims,  pursued 
through  life  with  rigid  consistency  and  bold  daring,  the  great 
Cardinal  was  thoroughly  successful.  In  pursuance  of  his  domestic 
policy,  it  was  necessary  to  crush  the  political  independence  of  the 
Huguenot  faction. 

Siege  of  Rochelle.— The  Edict  of  Nantes  had  not  only  given  the 
Protestants  toleration,  it  had  also  granted  political  and  military  self-government 
to  Rochelle,  the  great  commercial  centre  of  the  South,  and  to  other  southern 
towns.  These  were  consequently  the  centres  of  every  new  intrigue  or  revolt 
against  the  monarchy.  Cardinal  Richelieu  therefore  began,  in  1627,  the  siege 
of  Rochelle,  which  he  conducted  in  person.  Charles  I.  of  England  sent  two 
expeditions,  the  first  under  his  favorite,  Buckingham,  to  its  assistance.  Both 
failed.  A  great  dyke  had  been  constructed  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  vessels 
to  the  harbor,  and  after  an   obstinate   resistance  the  town  was  reduced   by 


^u 


PRANCE. 


hunger.    Cardinal  Richelieu  abolished  the  existence  of  the  state  within  the 
state,  but  continued  the  religious  toleration  of  the  Huguenots. 


French  Infentry.    Sketch  by  Callot,  17th  century. 


In  his  treatment  of  the  great  nobles  he  showed  unsparing 
severity  when  it  was  demanded.  Eesting  on  the  support  of  a  body 
of  "notables"  of  the  upper  middle  class,  the  destruction  of  tho 
castles  of  the  aristocracy  was  accomplished  and  their  power  was 
tlierewith  broken. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Richelieu  supported  the  English  Par- 
liament against  Charles  I.,  the  national  aspirations  of  Portugal,  the 
freedom  of  the  Dutch  Eepublic,  and  the  independence  of  the  Ger- 
man States  from  a  Hapsburg  ascendency.  By  supporting  the  move- 
ments which  the  logic  of  events  had  destined  to  success,  he  estab- 
lished the  security  and  greatness  of  France  among  them. 

The  participation  of  France  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
after  1635,  involved  a  war  on  both  branches  of  the  Hapsburgs.  In 
this  war  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs  suffered  most  severely,  but  Eicli- 
elieu  conquered  Artois  (Artwah)  from  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and 
by  taking  Roussillon  (Roos-i-yon)  from  Spain  carried  the  French 
border  to  the  Pyrenees. 

The  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  made  after  the  deaths  of  the  Car- 
dinal and  of  Louis  XIII. ;  but  its  gain  for  France  (Alsace)  was  the 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


2?5 


result  of  his  policy,  as  was  the  renewed  independence  of  Portugal 
after  1640  (p.  241). 

At  home  he  built  the  Palais  Cardinal,  since  called  the  Palais 
Eoyal ;  established  the  French  Academy,  1635,  and  by  his  patronage 
of  learning  created  the  generation  which  made  the  glory  of  the  four- 
teenth Louis.  The  great  College  of  the  Sorbonne,  founded  in  the 
13th  century,  was  especially  favored  and  enlarged  by  Richelieu.  He 
died  on  the  4th  of  December,  1642,  in  the  arms  of  a  Carmelite  friar. 

"With  all  his  political  greatness  Richelieu  was  an  earnest  Catholic.  He  did  much  to 
establish  that  spirit  which  has  done  such  service  to  religion  in  our  own  time  ;  the  spirit  which 
finds  all  political  beliefs  consistent  with  a  Catholic  faith  and  finds  therefore  no  grounds  against 
political  fellowship  with  Protestants.  It  is  conceded  that  his  policy  opens  the  period  when 
religious  differences  ceased  to  occasion  religious  wars. 

The  g-reatness  of  Bich- 
elieu  consisted  in  a  wise  esti- 
mate of  the  possible,  combined 
with  an  unswerving  energy  of 
resolution  in  its  accomplish- 
ment, and  his  despotism  of  pro- 
cedure was  accompanied  by  that 
unselfishness  of  purpose  which 
commands  respect  by  its  abso- 
lute devotion.  On  his  death-bed, 
pressed  to  forgive  his  enemies, 
he  replied,  "I  have  none  but 
those  of  the  State."  This  charac- 
ter was  recognized  by  Louis 
XIII.,  whose  greatness  it  is  to 
have  given  full  scope  to  the 
talents  of  the  Cardinal. 

The  character  of  Louis 
XIII.  was  pure,  his  interests 
elevated  and  noble.  A  musical 
air  of  his  composition  is  still  a 
favorite  with  modem  orchestras. 
In  his  time  were  written  the 
greater  tragedies  of  Corneille— 
the  Cid,  Horace,  Cinna  and  Poly- 
eucte  (Poly-ute).  It  is  the  later 
time  of  Corneille  which  belongs 

to  the  following  reign.  "During  the  time  of  Louis  XIII.  appeared  that  remarkable  constella- 
tion of  saints  and  saintly  men  of  whom  we  read  in  the  lives  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  M. 
Olier,  and  who  renewed  the  faith  of  the  Church  in  France.    Even  Richelieu  consulted  the 


{l|niilliii;!''n"!iH!!Ni!iiii|iHii:niiiiHi!i!ii!|||p|j!;n 

||«iliWIII!IB 

iB 

||m^ ^ 

^F 

■  '% 

MHHiii 

|^^% 

i 

'J^^^^^^^^B^iHi;  1; 

St.  Vincent  de  Faul. 
{From  an  engraving  of  his  time.) 


276 


FRANCE, 


venerable  Monsieur  Vincent  with  respect  on  Church  matters  and  appointments,  and  it  was  in 
his  arms  that  Louis  breathed  his  last." 

Mazarin. — Cardinal  Richelieu  had  designated  the  Italian  Car- 
dinal Mazarin  as  his  successor.  With  less  greatness,  but  with  the 
same  general  policy,  this  Minister  carried  on  the  traditions  of  his 
predecessor  into  the  following  reign. 

Louis    XIV.,   1643-1715,  began  his  reign,  like  his  father, 

as  a  minor.  He  was  not  five 
years  old  at  accession.  The 
Queen  mother,  Anne  "of  Aus- 
tria" (a  Spanish  Infanta),  and 
Mazarin  had  been  left  joint 
members  in  the  regency.  The 
smouldering  opposition  to  the 
stern  will  of  Richelieu  took 
shape  in  a  motion  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris,  setting  aside  this 
provision  and  making  Anne  of 
Austria  the  sole  regent.  The 
effort  to  win  influence  in  this 
way  was  dashed  by  the  action  of  the  Queen,  who  reappointed  Maza- 
rin co-regent.  He  was,  however,  unpopular  as  an  Italian  foreigner, 
and  she  w^as  unpopular  as  a  Spaniard. 

Causes  of  Discontent.— The  system  of  taxation  was  oppressive,  and  this  increased  the 
discontent.  The  English  parliament  had  made  itself  supreme  in  England  against  the  king, 
and  the  Parliament  of  Paris  was  infected  by  its  example.  The  situations  were  really,  how- 
ever, very  different,  for  the  Parliament  in  France  was  not  a  representative  body.  The  mem- 
bers owed  their  place  to  purchase  or  appointment.  Their  duties  were  simply  to  register  the 
laws.  Nor  was  there  in  France,  as  in  England,  a  sentiment  opposed  to  absolute  sovereignty, 
as  a  matter  of  principle.  Therefore,  the  parliamentary  opposition  which  began  in  France  the 
civil  war  of  the  "  Fronde  "  had  no  lasting  results. 

The  War  of  the  Fronde  is  so  named  because  the  opposition 
was  thought  to  act  like  the  boy  playing  ^vith  a  sling  (fronde)  who 
throws  a  stone  and  then  runs  away.  The  Parliament  began  its  war 
with  some  public  support  arising  from  the  unpopularity  of  the 
regents  and  the  weight  of  taxes,  but  found  its  cause  mainly  taken 


Louis  XIV.    Old  medal. 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


277 


up  by  the  members  of  the  nobility,  who  wished  to  reassert  the  old 

freedom  of  the  aristocracy  and  to  break  down  the  system  of  Eich- 

elieu  for  selfish  reasons.    The  Queen 

mother  and  Mazarin  were  driven  from 

Paris.     The  latter  had  the  wisdom 

to  leave  France,  still  continuing  to 

direct  his  party. 

Conde  and  Turenne.— Conde,  first  on  the 
side  of  the  government,  then  leader  of  the  aristo- 
cratic revolt,  hecame  in  this  last  capacity  more  un- 
popular than  the  government  and  took  service  with 
Spain.  Turenne,  the  leader  of  the  Fronde  at  first, 
afterward  took  service  for  the  court.  It  seemed 
impossible  for  either  party  to  be  serious.  Epi- 
grams and  jokes  were  plentiful  on  all  sides.  The 
court  had  actually  caused  the  arrest  of  Conde,  be- 
fore he  took  service  with  Spain,  by  an  order  signed 
in  blank  by  himself.  The  troubles  of  the  Fronde 
continued  between  1648  and  1653. 

Peace  of  Westphalia.— Maza- 
rin had  already,  in  the  first  year  of 
these  troubles,  effected  the  close  of 
the  negotiations  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  by  which  France  ob- 
tained the  important  possession  of  Alsace.  This  acquisition  was 
important  in  itself  and  also  because  it  gave  one  portion  of  the  king- 
dom the  Rhine  as  boundary.  Brilliant  victories  of  the  French  over 
the  Spaniards,  in  the  last  thirteen  years  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
had  secured  her  these  advantageous  terms. 

The  victories  of  Rocroi,  1643,  Freiburg,  1644,  Nordlingen,  1645,  Lens,  1648,  were  all  won 
by  Conde.  The  war  with  Spain  was  not  closed  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  but  continued 
during  the  period  of  the  Fronde,  when  the  Spaniards  secured  some  advantages  and  the  service 
of  the  famous  French  general,  as  noted.  Turenne  was  now  his  opponent  and  gained  Dun- 
kirk by  the  battle  of  the  Dunes.  It  was  turned  over  to  England,  whose  alliance  (time  of 
Cromwell)  ended  the  war  in  favor  of  the  French. 

The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  1659,  confirmed  the  conquests 
of  Artois  and  Eoussillon  made  in  the  time  of  Eichelieu,  and  gave  the 
Spanish  Infanta  in  marriage  to  Louis  XIV.  Conde  was  pardoned, 
and  became  one  of  the  great  generals  of  the  king. 


Musketeer ;  17th  Century. 
{Design  bg  Charlet.) 


278 


FRANCE 


Louis  XIV.  his  own  Prime  Minister. —Four  years  before 
this  date  the  young  king  had  shown  his  mettle  by  appearing  in  the 
Parliament  in  hunting-dress,  with  a  whip  in  his  hand,  and  ordering 
its  members  to  confine  themselves  to  duties  of  registration  without 
debate.  Two  years  after  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  at  the  death  of 
Cardinal  Mazarin,  he  assumed  absolute  control  of  the  state. 

The  despotic  system  developed  by  two  great  Ministers  was 
now  administered  by  the  king  himself,  on  the  avowed  principle — 
''I  am  the  state."  The  system,  which  had  begun  by  quelling  the 
nobles,  continued  under  Louis  XIV.  by  disarming  them  with  royal 
favors  and  employment  at  Court. 

Popularity  of  the  Monarchy.— Thus  a  despotism  perfected  by  the  support  of  the  pub- 
lic and  the  middle  classes  (accorded  the  monarchy  in  constantly  increasing  degree  since  the 
time  of  Louis  VI.,  p.  186),  exided  by  making  alsoan  instrument  and  ally  of  the  aristocratic  power 
it  had  overthrown.  This  is  the  greatness  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  Had  his  absolute  rale 
not  received  the  support  of  public  opinion  it  could  not  have  existed.  The  development  of 
absolute  monarchy  in  France  must  be  regarded  as  the  instrument  and  expression  of  a  popular 
sentiment  demanding  a  power  to  quell  the  nobles  and  suppress  the  feudal  system.  In  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden,  even,  the  same  popular  aspect  of  abso- 
lute monarchy  was  openly  conceded.  The  antagonism  of  monarcii 
and  people  in  England,  beginning  in  the  17th  century  and  ending  in 
the  revolution  of  1688,  had  special  local  causes.  It  did  not  exist  in 
the  16th  century,  when  Elizabeth  was  quite  independent  of  her 
parliament,  though  not  of  public  sentiment.  Against  public  sen- 
timent no  government  can  stand. 

Great  Names  of  the  Period.— The  influence  wielded  by 
Louis  XIV.  was  at  once  a  tribute  to  his  system,  to  his  personality, 
and  to  his  patronage  of  art  and  of  learning.  He  had  not  created 
the  generation  of  great  men  which  surrounded  him,  but  he  dis- 
cenied  their  qualities  and  rewarded  their  talents.  Among  dramatic 
authors  the  period  of  Corneille  continued,  that  of  Racine  and 
J:ioiieic.  Moli^re  began.    It  was  the  time  of  F§n61on,  Archbishop  of  Cam- 

brai  and  author  of "  T616maque  "  ;  of  Bourdaloue,  of  Bossuet  (Bos- 
sn-a),  and  of  Massillon  (MassByon)  in  pulpit  eloquence  ;  of  Boileau  (BwShlO)  in  criticism ;  and 
of  La  Fontaine,  author  of  the  celebrated  Fables.  The  French  language  attained  that  polish 
and  facility  of  expression  which  has  since  made  It  the  diplomatic  and  general  language  of 
Europe.  The  names  of  the  statesmen,  Colbert  (COlbare)  and  Louvois  (LouvwSh),  of  the  gen- 
erals Turenne  and  Cond6,  of  Vauban,  the  military  engineer,  are  world-renowned.  The  reign 
of  Louis  XrV.  exhibited  its  splendor  and  magnificence  in  the  palace  and  gardens  of  Ver- 
Bailies,  on  which  35,000  workmen  were  employed. 


The  War  of  Devolution.— In  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 


27^ 


Louis  XIV.  had  renounced  any  claims  on  behalf  of  his  Spanish 
Queen  to  the  Spanish  inheritance,  but  her  dowry  of  500,000  crowns 
had  not  been  paid.  Moreover,  Turenne  considered  the  possession 
of  certain  fortresses  on  the  frontier  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  as 
essential   to   the  military  security  of  France.     At  the  death  of 


The  Palace  of  Versailles  ia  ihc  time  of  Louis  XTV. 

Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  in  1665,  claim  was  therefore  laid  to  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands  by  right  of  ''devolution,"  on  the  ground  that 
Charles  II.,  the  next  (and  last)  Spanish  Hapsburg,  was  son  of  a 
second  marriage,  and  that  Flemish  law  gave  preference  to  the 
female  heir  of  the  first  marriage.  This  right  of  devolution  had  been 
discovered  for  Louis  by  the  Flemings,  who  dreaded  a  reversion  of 
their  state  to  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs,  and  favored  in  preference  a 
union  with  France. 

In  a  single  campaign,  1667-1668,  the  generals  of  Louis  conquered 
Belgium  and  the  Franche-Comte.  This  rapid  success  alarmed  the  rest  of 
Europe,  as  leading,  unless  opposed,  to  an  overpowering  French  ascendency, 
and  an  overthrow  of  the  *'  balance  of  power." 

A  triple  alliance  was  formed  between  Holland,  Sweden,  and  England  to 
oppose  the  French,  and  this  alliance  secured  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1668, 
by  which  Franche-Comte  was  abandoned  and  French  Flanders  (the  southern 
border  of  Belgium  with  important  fortresses)  was  retained  by  the  French. 


280  FRANCE. 

The  active  part  taken  by  Holland  in  checking  the  amlHtionof  Louis 
and  in  forcing  restitution  of  a  conquest  (tlie  Franche-Comte)  needed  to  carry 
France  to  her  natural  barrier  and  frontier  of  the  Jura  Mountains,  drew  upon 
the  Dutch  the  hatred  of  the  king. 

The  theory  which  made  the  monarch  the  state  had  this  disadvantage— that  the 
sentiment  of  personal  honor  so  lively  in  the  French  was  carried  by  Louis  into  the  science  of 
politics.  A  check  to  France  was  a  personal  insult  to  the  monarch.  This  was  the  weak  spot  of 
his  system,  and  the  very  chivalry  and  generosity  of  the  king's  character  exposed  France  to 
ultimate  exhaustion  by  constant  war. 

The  Dutch  war  was  opened  to  chastise  Holland,  in  1672.  The 
French  armies  overran  the  whole  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and 
nearly  all  Holland,  to  the  walls  of  Amsterdam.  In  this  emergency 
the  Dutch  overthrew  the  governmeat  of  the  brothers  De  Witt,  who 
had  ruled  the  Eepublic  in  the  interest  of  the  commercial  aristocracy, 
and  appointed  William  of  Orange,  a  descendant  of  William  the 
Silent,  their  Sfcadtholder. 

Only  one  resource  of  resistance  was  left — to  cut  the  dykes  which 
protect  this  country  from  the  sea.  The  country  was  flooded,  and 
tiius  was  saved.  Holland  could  afford  the  sacrifice,  great  as  it  was, 
because  her  power  and  greatest  wealth  lay  in  her  marine,  then  at  the 
head  of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  When  this  first  step  had  been 
taken,  William  of  Orange  united  in  coalition  against  France — Spain 
(now  the  ally,  so  long  the  enemy  of  the  Dutch),  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  the  Germanic  Empire.  France  had  now  to  contend  with 
almost  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  she  emerged  from  the  struggle 
successfully,  thanks  to  the  genius  of  her  great  generals,  Conde  and 
Turenne.     The  latter  was  killed  in  this  war. 

The  Peace  of  Nimwegen,  1678,  added  to  her  provinces  the 
Franche-Comte,  to  her  protection  the  barrier  of  the  Jura,  and  her 
fleet  was  mistress  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Continued  success  increased  the  jealousy  of  Europe  against  the  French,  and  it 
increased  the  self-confidence  of  Louis  XIV.  to  the  pitch  of  arrogance.  Spanish  ambassadors 
were  forced  at  all  courts  to  give  precedence  to  his.  Pope  Innocent  X.  was  curtailed  of  his 
rights  of  justice  in  the  very  city  of  Rome  on  a  question  of  ambassadorial  privilege.  His 
police  were  not  allowed  to  have  jurisdiction  In  the  district  of  the  French  ambuesador. 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  281 

The  rights  of  the  Roman  Church  were  seriously  attacked  iu  France  by  claim  of  the  king  to 
the  revenues  of  all  vacant  bishoprics.  The  French  Huguenots  were  to  be  forcibly  made  over 
into  Catholics,  and  the  dragonades  (exposure  to  the  violence  of  the  soldiery)  forced  thousands 
of  industrious  people  to  abandon  the  country.    (Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  1685.) 

Meantime,  although  the  organization  of  the  German  Empire  was  weak,  Austria  was  growing 
strong.  The  defeat  of  the  Turks  before  Vienua  iu  1683,  by  the  Polish  king,  Sobieski,  resulted 
in  a  series  of  victories  by  which  the  Turks  were  driven  out  of  Hungary. 

In  1686  was  formed  the  "Leagne  of  Augsburg,"  between  Austria  and  the 
Princes  of  the  Empire,  including  Brandenburg  (Prussia),  Spain  for  the  "Burgundian"  terri- 
tories, and  Sweden  for  the  Pomeranian  countries.  In  this  league  the  name  of  William  of 
Orange  did  not  appear,  but  he  was  well  known  to  be  its  supporter  and  instigator.  The  League 
of  Augsburg  proposed  to  protect  the  integrity  of  the  Germanic  Empire.  This  was  threatened 
with  encroachments  by  Louis  XIV.,  through  claims  on  behalf  of  his  brother's  wife  to  inherit- 
ance in  the  Palatinate,  and  by  claims  to  other  German  territories  (based  on  old  feudal  preten- 
sions of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun),  going  back  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  That  these 
pretensions  were  to  be  pushed  with  vigor  was  apparent  iu  the  absorption  of  Strassburg  by 
France.  This  important  free  town  of  Alsace,  with  some  minor  territories,  had  not  been 
included  in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  which  affected  the  Hapsburg  possessions  of  Alsace. 

War  of  the  League  of  Augsburg. — Louis  XIV.  declared 
war  on  the  Germanic  Empire  in  1688,  making  pretext  of  a  quarrel 
about  the  appointment  of  a  new  Electoral  Archbishop  of  Cologne. 
In  this  year  James  II.  was  expelled  from  the  English  throne  and 
replaced  by  William  of  Orange,  who  was  husband  of  Mary,  one  of 
the  daughters  of  the  English  king.  Louis  declared  for  the  cause 
of  James,  to  antagonize  his  great  enemy  William  of  Orange. 

The  war  of  the  League  of  Augsburg  continued  nine  years,  with 
many  bloody  battles  and  immense  sacrifices.  Spain,  Holland,  Eng- 
land, Savoy,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  were  combined  against  France. 
The  English  naval  victory  of  La  Hogue,  1692,  destroyed  the  French 
fleet  and  the  naval  ascendency  of  France  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  England  took  her  place. 

In  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  1697,  France  gained  nothing, 
made  some  cessions  in  Belgium,  and  in  internal  forces,  in  moral 
stamina,  had  lost  terribly. 

Burning  of  the  Palatinate.— In  this  war  occurred  the  terrible  French  devastation 
of  the  German  Palatinate,  p.  253,  when  entire  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed,  and  the 
country  was  laid  waste  Avholesale.  The  motive. was,  to  deprive  the  enemy  of  vantage-ground 
against  the  two  fortified  towns  of  Philipsburg  and  Mayence  by  creating  a  desert.  The  country 
was  destroyed  rather  than  surrender  it  to  the  rival  armies.  This  cruel  act  was  directed  by 
the  policy  of  Louvois,  but  the  king  could  have  prevented  it. 


282  FRANCE. 

Map  Study.— Juliers,  Marck,  Cleve,  and  Berg  are  entered  on  the  map  for  1713,  p.  254. 
In  this  disputed  succession,  the  Palatinate  gained  Berg  and  Juliers ;  Brandenburg  acquired 
Marclc,  Cleve,  and  Ravensberg  (p.  253).  For  the  Valtellina,  see  section  map  for  N.  E.  Italy,  on 
map  for  1550,  p.  228.    Rochelle,  map  for  1648,  p.  250. 

Acquisition  of  Artois,  map  for  1713,  but  compare  boundaries,  pp.  228,  250.  Acquisition  of 
Roussillon,  compare  maps  for  1550  and  1648.    Acquisition  of  Alsace,  compare  same  maps. 

Spanish  Netherlands,  map  for  1648.  Aix-la-Chapelle,  map  for  1713.  Nimvvegen,  same  map. 
Franche-Comte,  compare  colors  on  maps  for  1648  and  1713.  Augsburg,  map  for  1713. 
Strassburg,  La  Hogue,  the  same.    Byswick,  see  map  for  1648.    Palatinate,  map  for  1713. 

CHRONOLOGY   OF  FRENCH    HISTORY    IN    THE    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Canada  colonized  after a.  D.  1603 

Assassination  of  Henry  IV "     1610 

Richelieu,  Minister  for  Louis  XIII.  after "     1624 

Siege  of  Rochelle *'     1627 

France  takes  part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  after "     1635 

Death  of  Richelieu "     1642 

Accession  of  Louis  XIV "     1643 

Peace  of  Westphalia  gives  Alsace  to  France "  1648 

Civil  Wars  of  the  Fronde  till ♦'     1653 

Peace  of  the  Pyrenees  secures  Artois  and  Roussillon  to  France "  1659 

Death  of  Cardinal  Mazarin— Louis  XIV.  his  own  Minister "     1661 

War  of  Devolution  opens "     1667 

Peace  of  Aix~la-Chapelle— French  Flanders  acquired "  1668 

War  with  Holland  begun "     1672 

Peace  of  Nimwegen— Franche-Comte  acquired "  1678 

French  Empire  in  India  after "     1680 

Strassburg:  acquired "  1681 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes "     1685 

War  of  the  League  of  Augsburg "     1688 

Burning  of  the  Palatinate "     1689 

English  naval  victory  of  La  Hogue "     1692 

Peace  of  Ryswick *'     1697 

SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS   FOR  WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Who  were  the  English  rulers  of  the  17th  century?  Ans.  James  I.,  Charles  I.,  Cromwell, 
Charles  II.,  James  H.,  William  m. 

Why  did  the  accession  of  this  last  king  in  1688  embroil  England  with  France  ?    (P.  281.) 

What  war  began  in  this  year  ?    (P.  281.) 

When  did  the  Great  Elector  die?    (P.  251.) 

How  long  before  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  of  England  was  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV.  f 
(P.  263.) 

How  long  before  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  this  accession  ?    (P.  250.) 

When  did  the  Thirty  Years'  War  begin  ?    (P.  247.) 

How  long  after  this  time  did  Richelieu  become  Minister  of  France  ?    (P.  282.) 

What  did  this  country  gain  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  ?    (P.  250.) 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  283 

What  gain  by  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees  ?    (P.  277.) 

With  what  two  branches  of  one  family  were  these  treaties  respectively  made  ? 

Sketch  briefly  the  history  of  Spain  from  1469  to  1700.    (Pp.  225-229,  241,  242.) 

Cromwell  was  master  of  England  from  1649  to  1658.    Who  was  then  Minister  of  France  ? 

When  was  Gustavus  Adolphus  killed  ?    (P.  248.) 

What  French  Minister  had  favored  his  landing  in  Germany  ?    (P.  248.) 

When  did  Portugal  recover  independence  ?    (P.  275.)    How  ?    (P.  274.) 

What  English  party  was  favored  by  Richeheu  ?    What  German  party  ?    (P.  274.) 

When  was  Strassburg  acquired  by  France  ?    (P.  282.) 

What  caused  the  war  of  the  League  of  Augsburg  ?    (P.  281.) 

What  Spanish  king  died  in  1700?    (P.  241.) 

What  will  had  he  made  ?    (P.  254,  and  Genealogy,  p,  283.) 

What  powers  opposed  this  will  ?    (P.  255.)     Why  ? 

What  contributed  to  the  power  of  Austria  in  the  last  half  of  the  17th  century  ?    (P.  251.) 

What  were  the  relations  of  Germany  to  France  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  ?    (P.  251.) 

What  gains  to  Brandenburg  by  this  Peace  ?    (P.  253.) 

What  part  did  Prussia  take  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  ?    (P.  254.) 

Why?    (P.  254.) 

Relate  the  course  of  this  war.   (P.  255.)    The  conditions  of  the  Pea^p  of  Utrecht.   (P.  256.) 

What  gain  for  England  ?    (Pp.  260,  284.) 

When  had  the  Spanish  Hapsburg  line  begun  ?    (P.  257.)    Name  its  possessions  in  1556. 

EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

FRENCH    KINGS  OF  THE  18th   CENTURY. 

Louis  XIV A.  D.  (1643)-m5 

Louis  XV. ,  great-grandson  of  the  foregoing "       1715-1774 

Louis  XVL,  grandson  of  the  foregoing "       1774-1793 

GENEALOGT  OP  THE  SPANISH  AND  FKBNCH  BOURBONS. 

Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

Maria  Theresa = Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Charles  11. 

I  1 1700. 

Louis  the  Dan  phi  n = Maria  Anna  of  Bavaria. 

Duke  of  Burgundy.  Philip  V.  of  Spain. 

I  Founder  of  the  Spanish 
Louis  XV.  Bourbons. 

1 1774. 

Louis  the  Dauphin. 
tl765. 

J 

Louis  XVI.  Louis  XVin.  Charles  X. 

+ 1793.  1 1824.  Deposed  1830. 

Louis  XVn. 
tl795. 


284  FRANCE. 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. — The  Peace  of  Ryswick 
lasted  only  three  years.  The  Spanish  Succession  War  (p.  254),  which 
opened  in  1700,  went  almost  uniformly  against  the  French,  whose 
greatest  generals,  Turenne,  Conde,  and  Luxemburg,  were  dead. 
Marlborough,  for  tbe  Enghsli,  and  Prince  Eugene,  for  the  Aus- 
trian s,  either  separately  or  together  won  victory  after  victory — 
Blenheim  1704,  Ramillies  and  Turin  1706,  Oudenarde  1708,  Mal- 
plaquet  1709. 

Peace  of  Utrecht,  1713. — In  the  time  of  disaster  the  virtues 
of  the  character  of  Louis  XIV.  were  as  conspicuous  as  his  defects 
had  often  been.  His  fortitude,  patience,  and  dignity,  won  universal 
admiration.  A  revolution  of  English  parties  displaced  Marlborough, 
and  the  death  of  the  Austrian  Hapsburg  Emperor  made  the  Aus- 
trian Hapsburg  claimant  Emperor  as  well,  and  so  turned  Europe 
against  a  reunion  of  the  States  of  Charles  V.  Thus  this  war,  which 
threatened  the  downfall  of  France,  gave  her  Bourbon  dynasty  a  seat 
on  the  throne  of  Spain  (where  it  still  continues)  and  the  Spanish 
American  possessions.  France  resigned  to  England,  besides  Gib- 
raltar, Hudson's  Bay,  Newfoundland,  and  Nova  Scotia, 
and  abandoned  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts,  the  heirs  of  James  II.  of 
England. 

Map  Study.— Blenheim,  in  Central  Germany,  map  for  1713,  p.  254.  Same  map,  or  comer 
section,  for  Turin  and  battlefields  of  the  Netherlands— Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  Malplaquet.  For 
Peace  of  Utrecht  see  Bourbon  color  in  Spain ;  for  Austrian  acquisitions  and  that  of 
Savoy  see  map  explanation,  p.  256,  and  map  for  1713. 

Two  years  after  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  Louis  XIV.  died.  Above 
all  the  political  changes  and  "historical  events"  of  his  reign  must 
be  placed  that  expansion  of  the  French  spirit  and  cultivation  over 
Europe  which  has  ever  since  continued.  This  it  was  which  gave  his 
triumphs  their  strength  and  which  deprived  his  reverses  of  im- 
portance. 

Character  of  Louis  XTV.— In  person  this  monarch  was  dignified  and  commanding.  In 
intercourse  he  was  affable  and  careful  of  the  feelings  of  his  friends.  His  mind  was  quick. 
His  conversation  had  that  combination  of  wit  and  sagacity  peculiar  to  the  French.  His  pri- 
vate life  was  not  blameless  in  youth,  but  bo  had  tbe  grace  to  acknowledge  and  atone  for  his 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  285 

sins  in  later  years.  On  his  deathbed  greatness  of  soul  did  not  desert  him.  To  the  friends 
around  him  he  said :  "  Why  do  you  weep,  did  you  think  me  immortal  ?  I  did  not  think  it  was 
BO  easy  to  die." 

Louis  XV.,  1715-1774,  was  the  great-grandson  of  his  prede- 
cessor and  under  live  years  of  age  at  accession.  The  age  and  associa- 
tions were  not  those  of  the  period  of  Louis  XIV., 
who  had  outlived  the  great  artists  and  the  great 
men  of  letters  of  the  17th  century.  The  regency 
was  conducted  by  the  nephew  of  Louis  XIV., 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  man  of  ability,  but  of 
dissipated  character.  His  Prime  Minister, 
the  Abbe  Dubois,  was  also  a  vicious  person. 
Under  the  influence  of  such  guardians  the  king 
grew  up  to  rival  them  in  vice,  but  not  in  talent.  Louis  xv. 

Louis  XV.  was  declared  of  age  in  1723,  when  iEngraved  gem.) 

the  reoent  retired,  dying  soon  after. 

Cardinal  Fleury  was  the  king's  Prime  Minister  for  many  years 
(1726-1743).  His  policy  of  economy  and  inactivity  corresponded 
to  the  changed  position  of  France,  whose  vigorous  action  of  the 
century  before  was  no  longer  congenial  to  a  pleasure-loving  court 
and  an  aristocracy  weakened  by  corruption.  During  his  adminis- 
tration, however,  took  place  the  War  of  the  Polish  Succession. 

The  Polish.  Sxiccession.— Louis  XV.  had  married  the  daughter  of  Stanislaus  Lec- 
zinski  (king  of  Poland,  in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  till  expelled  by  Charles  XIL  of 
Sweden).  Stanislaus  was  again  elected  at  the  death  of  the  Saxon  king  of  Poland  in  1733.  The 
House  of  Austria,  in  league  with  Russia,  favored  the  pretensions  of  the  next  Saxon  Elector 
(why  ?  p.  256)  and  he  was  elected  by  another  Polish  party.  Hence  the  War  of  the  Polish  Suc- 
cession, 1733-1738.  France,  in  alliance  with  Spain  and  "  Sardinia  "  (Savoy;,  supported  the  claim 
of  the  king's  father-in-law,  but  without  much  vigor. 

The  Treaty  of  Vienna,  1738,  secured  the  crown  of  Poland 
to  Augustus  III.  of  Saxony,  and  indemnified  Stanislaus  Leczinski 
by  the  Duchy  of  Lorraine,  with  reversion  after  his  death  to 
France;  and  thus  this  important  province  was  united  with  the 
monarchy.  (Compare  maps  for  1648,  1713  and  1748,  pp.  250, 
254,  256.) 


286 


FRANCE 


MAP  EXPLANATION. 

Tuscany.— The  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Francis,  husband  of  the  Austrian  Queen  Maria  Theresa, 
was  indemnified  with  Tuscany,  where  the  line  of  the  Medici  became  extinct  in  1737.  Tuscany 
became  an  Austrian  Appanage  (connected  with  Austria,  but  ruled  by  a  branch  line).    See  the 

Austrian  color  on  map  for  1748.  (The  House  of  Austria 
had  obtained  Belgium,  Milan,  Naples  and  Sardinia  in  the 
Spanish  Succession  War.  See  map  for  1713,  with  Haps- 
burg  color  and  Spanish  Unes  removed  in  these  territories. 
It  had  exchanged  Sardinia  for  Sicily  in  1720.  So  that  it 
ruled  before  the  Peace  of  Vienna  in  1738,  Belgium,  Milan, 
Naples  and  Sicily.)  The  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  was 
transferred  by  this  peace  to  a  branch  line  of  the  Spanish 
Bourbons.  See  Bourbon  color  on  map  for  1748.  (Explan- 
ation repeated  from  p.  256.) 

Austrian  Succession.— France  also  took  part  in 
the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (ijp.  256, 257),  1740-1748, 
without  glory  and  without  any  results  except  a  large  addi- 
tion to  an  already  enormous  debt,  the  legacy  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  Seven  Years'  War,  1756-1763,  (p.  256,)  cost 
France  the  loss  of  Canada  and  of  the  Western  Amer- 
ican territories  to  England.  England  gained  also  the 
French  East  Indian  possessions  and  developed 
from  them  the  British  Empire  in  India.  (Peace  of  Paris, 
p.  258.) 

Corsica  was  ceded  in  1768  by  Genoa  to  the  French. 
It  had  long  been  a  Genoese  possession,  when  a  rebellion 
in  1755  which  could  not  be  suppressed  caused  finally  the 
cession  of  the  Island  to  a  stronger  power.  Only  a  few 
months  later,  in  1769,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  bom 
in  Corsica,  at  Ajaccio.    His  family  had  emigrated  at  an 

French  Uniform,  18lh  Century.        ^""^'*  '^^^^  ^""^^  ^'^^^"^^• 
{Design  by  Charlet.) 

After  the  death  of  Fleury  (in  1743) 
Louis  XV.  had  conducted  the  government  under  the  control  of 
female  favorites.  The  monarchy  forfeited  the  esteem  of  tlie  people, 
and  while  it  continued  to  exhaust  the  resources  of  the  country  in 
foreign  war,  it  did  not  offer  even  the  barren  stimulus  of  glory  to 
the  loyalty  of  the  nation. 

A  wise  financial  administration  and  a  progressive  domestic  policy 
were  absolutely  essential  to  the  national  stability,  and  these  were 
not  even  attempted  by  the  king. 

Louis  XVI.,  1774-1793,  was  the  grandson  of  the  last  king, 
and  twenty  year^i  old  wlu'ii  crowned.    His  character  was  amiable  and 


ElGHTEETNTIi    CENTURA. 


28t 


Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette. 
{Medal  qf  the  time.) 


Iiprigiit,  without  decision,  without  foresight,  and  without  experience. 
His  Queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  was  the  daughter  of  the  Austrian 
Empress  Maria  Theresa.  In 
spite  of  many  engaging  quaU- 
ties,her  extravagance  and  levity 
made  the  court  unpopular  with 
the  common  people,  who  were 
beginning  to  contrast  their  con- 
dition of  misery  with  the  opu- 
lence of  the  aristocracy. 

The  Tax-farmers.— Most 
opulent  of  all  were  the  bankers 
who  farmed  the  taxes.  The 
old  Roman  Eepubli can  system 
of  raising  taxes  by  contract  had 
been  followed  in  France  with 
the  same  results  of  oppression 

and  peculation.  The  burden  of  these  taxes  fell  on  the  poor.  The  priv- 
ileged classes  held  the  bulk  of  property,  and  they  were  exempt  from 
taxation.  This  unjust  distribution  of  burdens,  combined  with  financial 
mismanagement  and  heavy  indebtedness,  was  one  main  cause  of  the 
French  Revolution.  Public  attention  was,  however,  absorbed  for  the 
moment  by  the  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  of  the  American  colonies. 

The  French  in  America  before  the  Seven  Years'  "War.— After  the  opening  of 
the  17th  century,  the  French  had  been  foremost  in  the  New  World  and  England  next.  Spain 
had  relaxed  her  energies  in  this  direction.  While  the  Puritans  were  colonizing  Massachusetts, 
after  1620,  the  French  had  already  fixed  themselves  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  French  Jesuit  mission- 
aries began  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  to  Christianity.  In  two  points  the  French  far  sur- 
passed the  English  ;  in  their  treatment  of  the  natives,  in  the  extent  of  their  territory.  From 
the  St.  Lawrence  they  pushed  their  exploring  parties  to  Albany.  Moving  along  the  chain  of 
Great  Lakes  to  Lake  Superior,  they  descended  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans.  Then  they 
proceeded  to  open  up  the  basin  of  the  Ohio  and  the  country  between  the  crest  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  and  the  Mississippi. 

This  rapid  advance  of  the  French  in  the  West  alarmed  the  settlers  in  the  English 
colonies.  The  jealousy  of  England  was  excited.  The  Seven  Years'  War,  1756-1763,  was  begun 
(in  America)  to  wipe  out  the  French  hold  of  the  West  and  of  Canada.  Without  warning,  at 
the  opening  of  the  war,  immense  numbers  of  French  merchantmen  were  seized.  The  Ministers 
of  Louis  XV.  could  not  cope  with  the  rapid,  daring,  and  broad  combinations  of  the  English 


288  FRANCE. 

Minister,  Pitt.  And  yet  the  English  overreached  themselves.  The  French  abandoned  their 
American  possessions  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Yeai-s'  War ;  but  the  French  Minister,  Choi- 
seuil,  prophesied  that  England  would  lose  her  colonies  in  consequence.  Both  the  French  and 
Spaniards  had  much  just  reason  for  complaint,  throughout  the  18th  century,  against  the  colo- 
nial policy  of  the  English.  English  mercantile  jealousy  of  the  two  Bourbon  dynasties  had  been 
the  mainspring  of  her  participation  in  the  wars  of  the  Continent.  Since  the  loss  of  the  Great 
West  and  of  the  French  Canadian  territories,  the  French  Ministries  had  been  waiting  their  turn. 
Participation  of  France  in  the  American  "War  of  Independence.— This  now 
offered  itself  in  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution,  1715  and  1770.  The  participation 
of  the  French  in  this  war  after  1778,  was  due  to  the  influence  of  Benjamin  Franklin  at  the 
French  Court.  The  French  army,  sent  under  Rochambeau  in  1780,  contributed  materially  to 
the  success  of  the  American  cause.  The  decisive  turning-point  was  the  surrender  cf  Com- 
wallis  in  1781,  and  American  Independence  was  secured  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  in  1783. 

An  enthusiasm,  for  Republican  liberty  had  been  awakened  by  the  r.  newed  studies 
of  classic  antiquity  toward  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  and  was  increased  by  the  success 
of  the  American  colonies.  Much  philosophical  speculation  on  the  rights  of  man  had  led  to  an 
exaggerated  estimate  of  human  liberties  as  opposed  to  human  duties  and  responsibilities. 
Skepticism  and  infidelity  had  become  very  general  through  the  influence  of  talented  but  ill- 
balanced  authors. 

The  French  Revolution  thus  presents  a  mixture  of  causes  and  a  mixture  in  results. 
It  abolished  class  privilege  and  class  distinction  in  legislation,  which  was  a  good  thing  to  da 
It  attempted  to  establish  a  civil  constitution  for  the  Church,  which  was  absurd.  It  attacked  a 
monarchy  which  had  neglected  the  people,  but  in  the  person  of  a  monarch  who  wished  them 
well.  In  its  zeal  for  reform  it  made  the  mistake  of  conceiving  that  legislation  is  a  nniversal 
remedy  for  ills  of  the  State. 

The  Revolution  presents  three  stag-es.— A  period  of  changes— some  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  farther  existence  of  France— some,  destructive  of  religion  and  therefore  of 
morality.  2d.  A  period  of  attack  on  the  rights  of  property,  of  hatred  for  the  best  and  purest 
characters  in  France,  of  wild  legislation,  of  rampant  infidelity  and  insane  bloodshed.  3d.  A 
period  of  reaction  in  favor  of  religion,  of  discipline  and  order,  ending  in  the  military  monarchy 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  as  the  only  feasible  government  under  the  circumstances. 

History  of  Europe  during-  and  after  the  Revolution.— From  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution  the  political  history  of  Western  Europe  involves  constant  reference  to  all 
its  nations.  A  brief  account  of  the  main  events  is  best  presented  in  the  order  of  time,  without 
attempt  to  separate  the  history  of  different  countries. 


IMPORTANT  TERRITORIES  ACQUIRED    BY   FRANCE  AFTER   1500. 

(P.  268.)    Marche  and  Bourbonnais a.  D.  1531 

(P.  265.)    Bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun "  1552 

(P.277.)    Alsace .h "  1648 

(P.277.)    Artois  and  Roussillon "  1669 

(P.279.)    French  Flanders "  16G8 

(P.280.)    Franche-Comt6 "  1678 

(P.281.)    Strassburg "  1681 

(P.  285.)    Lorraine,  1738  and  death  of  Stanislaus  Leczinekl "  1766 

(P.286.)    Corsica  "  1768 


Eighteenth  century.  289 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   FRENCH    HISTORY    IN   THE   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain.    Cause  of  the  Spanish  Succession  War  (p.  260) A.  D.  1700 

Peace  of  Utrecht  gives  Spain  and  Spanish  America  to  the  Bourbons "     1713 

Accession  of  Louis  XV "     1715 

Eeversion  of  Lorraine.  (Spanish  Bourbon  Naples  and  Sicily.  Austrian  Tuscany.)..  "  1738 
French  participation  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (p.  256),  from  1740.-...  "  1748 
Seven  Years'  War,  from  1756  to  Peace  of  Paris  (and  Hubertsburg). 


4- 


,....  1763 
France  loses  her  American  and  East  Indian  possessions  to  England. 

Death  of  Stanislaus  Leczinsky  gives  Lorraine  formally  to  France "  1766 

Corsica  acquired  from  Genoa *'  1768 

Accession  of  Louis  XVI "  1774 

French  participation  in  the  War  of  the  American  Revolution,  after "  1778 

Peace  of  Versailles "  1783 

French  Revolution  begins "  1789 

Execution  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette "  1793 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  "  First  Consul " "  1799 


SYNCHRONISTIC  QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

What  conditions  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  are  7wt  mentioned  at  p.  284  ?    (See  p.  256.) 

(Do  not  confuse  these  conditions  with  the  changes  of  1720  and  1738  mentioned  in  the  same 
connection.) 

What  relation  was  the  first  Spanish  Bourbon  to  the  last  Spanish  Hapsburg  ?  (Genealogy, 
p.  283.) 

When  did  the  Spanish  Bourbons  acquire  Naples  and  Sicily  ?    (Pp.  256,  286.)    Prom  whom  ? 

How  long  had  Austria  held  these  possessions  ?    As  result  of  what  war  ? 

Wiiat  did  Austria  gain  in  return  ?    (Pp.  256,  286.)    In  the  person  of  what  Prince  ? 

What  territory  had  he  ruled  ?    What  became  of  this  territory  ? 

Who  were  the  English  sovereigns  of  the  18th  century  ?    (P.  262.) 


FRENCH   SOVEREIGNS   FROM    1500  TO   1800. 

Louis  XII A.  D.  (1498)-1515 

FrancisI "  1515-1547 

Henry  n "  1547-1559 

Francis  U "  1559-15G0 

Charles  IX "  1560-1574 

Henrylll "  1574-1589 

Henry  IV "  1589-1610 

Louis  Xni "  1610-1643 

Louis  XIV "  1643-1715 

Louis  XV "  1715-1774 

LouisXVI "  1774-1793 


THE 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


A.ND  LATER  MODERN  HISTORY  OF  WESTERN  EUROPE. 


THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION. 


THB  BOURBON  LINE  WITH  THE  ORLEANS  BRANCH. 

Henry  IV. 
tl6l0. 

I 


Louis  XIII. 
tl64;3. 

I 


Gaston  of  Orleans. 


Henrietta  Maria. 

Married  Charles  I. 

of  England. 


Louis  XIV. 

tni5. 

Louis,  Dauphin. 

tmi. 


Louis,  Dnke  of  Burgundy. 
+1712. 

Louis  XV. 

+1774. 

Louis',  Dauphin. 
+1765. 


Philip  V.  of  Spain. 


Louis  XVI. 
+1793. 

(Louis  XVII.) 

i'uye  299. 

+1795. 


Louis  XVIII. 
+1824. 


Charles  X. 

Deposed  1830. 

+  18:36. 

Duke  of  Berry. 

+1820. 

I 


Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans. 
+1701. 

Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans. 
The  "  Regent,"  +1723. 

Louis. 

+1752. 

I 

Louis  Philippe, 

+1785. 

Louis  Philippe-Joseph. 
"  Egalite,"  +1793. 

Louis  Philippe. 

French  kincr,  1830-1818. 

+1850. 

Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Orleans. 
+1842. 

(   The  Comte  de  Paris. 
(  The  Duke  de  Chartres. 


Henry  V.,"  Duke  of  Bordeaux. 
Comte  de  Chambord. 

+1883. 


In  1786  the  deficit  in  the  French  finances  and  the  impossibility 
of  meeting  it  without  extraordinary  measures,  caused  the  king  to 


THE     FRENCH    REVOLUTION.  201 

summon  a  Convention  of  "  Notables  "  to  devise  remedies.  This 
assembly  did  not  accomplish  anything. 

Recourse  was  next  had  to  a  Convention  of  the  Estates.  Only 
the  privileged  orders  of  clergy  and  nobles  had  been  represented  in 
the  meeting  of  Notables.  In  the  new  convention  the  Third  Estate 
of  people  in  general,  without  any  privilege  of  rank,  was  also 
summoned. 

On  the  5th  of  May,  1789,  the  king  convened  the  Estates  at 
Versailles.  The  Third  Estate  refused  to  be  convened  separately.  It 
demanded  the  holding  of  the  Estates  in  one  body  to  vote  by  numbers. 
The  Third  Estate  equaled  in  number  the  sum  of  the  two  other 
orders,  and  this  demand  stated  the  grievance  of  the  French  people 
in  general,  as  being  opposed  to  privilege  of  one  class  over  another. 

On  the  27th  of  June,  1789,  the  clergy  and  nobility  agreed  to 
sit  with  the  Third  Estate,  and  the  National  Assembly  began  to 
act.  It  abolished  all  class  legislation  and  all  distinctions  of  rank, 
but  it  also  appropriated  all  Church  property  to  the  service  of  the 
nation.  A  uniform  system  of  taxation  was  decreed,  and  the  As- 
sembly dissolved.  A  self-denying  ordinance  was  passed,  by  which 
its  members  resolved  not  to  serve  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  which 
was  to  follow. 

This  Assembly  met  in  October,  1791.  Its  most  important 
act  was  a  declaration  of  war,  in  1792,  against  the  German  Emperor, 
Francis  II.  of  Austria.  Since  1713  the  Spanish  Netherlands  had 
belonged  to  Austria.  The  principles  of  the  French  Revolution 
were  spreading  all  over  Europe,  and  the  Austrian  ruler,  dreading 
the  contamination  of  Belgium,  posted  an  army  on  the  Belgian 
frontier.  This  was  considered  a  menace  by  the  French,  who  were 
also  much  excited  by  efforts  of  refugee  nobles  to  rouse  Europe 
against  them. 

The  declaration  (of  Pillnitz)  by  Prussia  and  Austria  that 
they  would  take  measures  to  emancipate  Louis  XYI.  from  confine- 
ment was  the  immediate  cause  of  war.  German  forces,  collected  by 
the  Austrian   sovereign   as   Emperor  of  Germany,  were   directed 


292  THEREIGNOFTERROR. 

against  France,  but  the  campaign  of  1792  was  ineffective  except  in 
kindling  French  patriotism.  (Check  of  the  Germans  at  Valmy, 
and  subsequent  retreat.     Victory  of  the  French  at  Jemmappes.) 

Meantime  the  halting  attitude  of  the  king  and  his  repugnance 
to  the  war  led  to  a  coalition  of  the  moderates  with  the  extremists 
of  the  Republican  party,  and  monarchy  was  abolished  by  a  National 
Convention  on  the  21st  of  September,  1792. 

The  king  was  then  tried  for  conspiring  against  the  national 
liberty,  sentenced  to  death,  and  executed,  January  21,  1793.  His 
queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  was  soon  afterward  put  to  death.  All 
members  of  the  aristocratic  or  royalist  party  who  could  be  seized 
shared  a  like  fate.  The  Cathohc  priests,  as  defenders  of  law  and 
order,  were  subjected  to  imprisonment  and  condemned  to  death 
wholesale.  For  opposing  the  frenzy  of  the  extremists  (the  "Jaco- 
bins "),  the  moderates  ("Girondists"),  who  had  themselves  set  the 
ball  rolling,  found  themselves  the  victims  of  the  guillotine,  and  a 
"  Reign  of  Terror"  began  which  has  left  its  stamp  on  the  name  of 
Robespierre  (Rob-es-peair).  The  Catholic  worship  was  proscribed 
under  pain  of  death. 

Divisions  among  the  leaders  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  termi- 
nated in  a  reaction.  July  28,  1794,  Robespierre  and  the  leaders 
of  the  extremist  party  were  executed.  This  ^  ended  the  Reign  of 
Terror. 

In  1795  the  National  Convention  completed  a  Constitution  for 
France  and  passed  over  the  government  to  a  legislative  body  of  two 
Councils.     The  executive  power  was  held  by  Five  Directors. 

Meantime  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  had  caused  a  coalition 
in  1793,  headed  by  England,  of  all  European  powers  (except  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Turkey,  and  the  Swiss)  against  France.  But  the 
French  had  waged  war  so  vigorously  that  they  held  already  in  1794 
all  territory  on  the  left  Rhine  bank,  including  Belgium.  (The 
Dutch  Republic  allied  itself  with  France.) 

Prussia,  in  1794,  withdrew  from  the  war  by  the  Peace  of 
Basle,  stipulating  for  a  line  of  demarcation  beyond  which  the  war 


^ 


-     THE    TIMES    OF    BONAPARTE.  293 

was  not  to  be  carried  in  North  Germany.  Thus  the  Emperor  was 
left  to  wage  war  alone,  with  assistance  of  England.  The  French 
made  aggressive  campaigns  on  South  Germany  and  Italy  at  the 
same  time. 

THE  TIMES  OF   BONAPARTE. 

Map  Study.— See  "Europe  in  1810  "  and  compare  in  detail  with  " Europe  in  1748,"  p.  256. 
Notice  the  section  map  for  North  Italy. 

Italy  became  a  theatre  of  conflict,  because  Austria  ruled  Milan 
and  Tuscany.  In  Germany  the  French  campaign  was  a  failure, 
but  this  reverse  was  more  than  balanced  by 
the  brilliant  successes  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte against  the  Austrians  in  Italy. 

By  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio,  1797, 
Austria  formally  relinquished  the  Netherland 
possessions  to  France  and  recognized  an  Itahan 
Eepublic  erected  out  of  the  Austrian  posses- 
sions in  Italy.  Bonaparte. 

In  1798  and  1799  took  place  the  Egyp-  ^^^  ^"'"'^'''^•^ 

tian  expedition  under  Bonaparte.  Its  idea  was  to  clear  the 
way  for  a  French  ascendency  in  the  East  and  the  overthrow  of 
the  British  Empire  in  India.  The  destruction  of  the  French  fleet 
by  the  English  (Lord  Nelson)  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir  crippled  these 
plans.  Bonaparte  conquered  Egypt,  but  could  not  hold  Syria 
against  the  Turks  and  English,  and  he  returned  to  France.  (Eg3rpt 
was  abandoned  by  the  army  left  behind  in  1801.) 

In  1799  the  violent  transformation  by  the  Directory  of  the 
Papal  States  into  a  "  Eoman  Eepublic,"  with  other  aggressive  acts, 
again  led  to  war.  (England,  Eussia,  Turkey  and  Austria  against 
France.)  The  French  were  driven  out  of  Italy  by  the  Eussians 
under  Suwarrow  (Soovarov).  But  on  the  return  of  Bonaparte 
from  Egypt  he  overthrew  the  Directory  and  was  made  First 
Consul,  1799,  i.  e.,  elective  head  of  the  State. 

The  decisive  battle  of  Marengo  was  gained  by  Bonaparte  in 


294 


NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 


Italy,  June  14th,  1800.     The  French  General   Moreau  gained  in 
Germany,  December  3d  of  the  same  year,  the  victory  of  Hohenlin- 

den.  Peace  was  made  with  Austria 
at  Luneville,  1801 ;  with  the  other 
Powers  at  Amiens,  1802.  All  terri- 
tories on  the  left  Rhine  bank  were 
ceded  to  France. 

Bonaparte  restored  the  Catholic 
worship,  encouraged  the  return  of  the 
Royalists  to  France,  and  in  all  de- 
partments of  government  carried  out 
most  important  reforms. 

In  1803  England  again  declared 
war  through  jealousy  of  Bonaparte. 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Sweden  com- 
bined with  her.  Prussia  remained 
neutral.  The  victory  of  Austerlitz, 
won  by  Bonaparte  December  2d,  1805, 
ended  the  war.  At  the  moment  of 
victory  Prussia  was  about  to  begin 
hostilities  because  Bonaparte  had  not 
stopped  to  go  round  Anspach  and 
Baireuth  (see  p.  167),  instead  of 
marching  through  them.  The  am- 
bassador who  was  deputed  to  declare 
war  changed  his  key  after  Austerhtz,  but  his  original  commission 
was  guessed  by  Napoleon,  and  Prussia  lost  favor. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg  Bonaparte  was  acknowledged  by 
Austria  as  Emperor  of  France  (he  had  been  crowned  in  1804)  and 
King  of  Italy.  Venice  had  been  surrendered  to  Austria  as  com- 
pensation for  Belgium.  But  Venice  and  Dalmatia  were  both  taken 
from  Austria  now  and  made  French  territory,  and  the  Tyrol  was 
given  to  Bavaria.  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  and  Baden  were  enlarged. 
The  two  former  were  made  kingdoms.     The  kingdom  of  Naples 


Colonel  of  Cuirassiers. 
(Times  of  Bonaparte^ 


THE    TIMES    OF    BONAPARTE. 


295 


m- 

: 

^ 

Ppi^ 

was  given  to  Napoleon's  brother  Joseph.     Holland  was  given  as 
^  kingdom  to  his  brother  Louis  (father  of  Napoleon  III.). 

In  1806  a  large 
part  of  Western  Ger- 
many was  consolidated 
into  a  "Rhenish  Con- 
federacy," with  Na- 
poleon as  Protector. 
Francis  II.  of  Austria 
renounced  the  title  of 
Emperor  of  Christen- 
dom, held  by  the  Ger- 
man sovereigns  since 
Charlemagne,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Austria. 

Prussia  could 
not  brook  the  dom- 
inance of  Bonaparte  in  Germany,  and  the  harsh  words  which  her 
own  duplicity  had  provoked.  She  declared  war  in  1806.  The 
double  victory  of  Jena  (Yfinah)  and  Auerstadt  in  this  same 
year  led  to  the  triumphal  entry  of  the  French  into  Berhn.  The 
Russians,  90,000  strong,  came  to  the  assistance  of  Prussia.  Bona- 
parte defeated  them  at  Friedland.  The  Peace  of  Tilsit  then 
stripped  Prussia  of  one-half  her  territory,  1807,  and  made  an  alliance 
between  France  and  Russia.  The  French  Empire  now  reached, 
through  Holland  over  Hanover,  to  the  border  of  Denmark. 

From  the  confiscated  Prussian  territories  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Elbe,  with  portions  of  Brunswick  and  Hesse-Cassel,  Bona- 
parte made  the  new  kingdom  of  "Westphalia"  for  his  younger 
brother,  Jerome. 

To  cripple  the  mercantile  resources  of  England,  which 
(having  lost  Hanover)  refused  to  abandon  its  hostility  to  the  Em- 
peror, he  declared  a  blockade  of  Great  Britain,  that  is,  prohibited  all 


Church  of  the  Madeleine,  Paris,    Built  under  Bonaparte. 


296  NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

commerce  with  her  on  the  part  of  the  European  States,  and  ordered 
the  confiscation  of  all  British  property  and  arrest  of  all  British  sub- 
jects on  the  Continent.  Portugal  refused  to  confiscate  British 
property,  and  was  occupied  by  a  French  army  in  1807.  (The 
Royal  family  took  refuge  in  Brazil,  and  one  of  its  branches  has 
since  continued  there.) 

Dissension  between  parties  in  Spain  called  in  here  also  the 
intervention  of  Bonaparte,  who  procured  the  abdication  of  the 
incapable  monarch,  and  gave  the  kingdom  to  his  brother 
Joseph ;  his  cavalry  general,  Murat,  taking  Naples.  Many  use- 
ful reforms  were  proposed  for  Spain,  but  its  national  spirit  rebelled 
against  them.  English  armies  were  poured  in  to  assist  the  Spanish 
revolt,  and  this  war,  in  the  years  from  1808  to  1813,  when  the 
French  were  driven  out  of  Spain,  caused  the  final  ruin  of  Bona- 
parte. (The  Spanish  South  American  Colonies  threw  off  their 
allegiance  and  established  independent  governments  during  the  time 
of  the  war  with  France. ) 

Pope  Pius  VII.  had  refused  his  countenance  to  the  extreme 
measures  against  the  English,  and  he  was  made  prisoner  in  conse- 
quence. Although  Bonaparte  had  restored  the  Catholic  worship, 
suppressed  in  the  Reign  of  Terror,  his  supreme  power  over  all 
Europe  made  him  lose  sight  of  the  force  of  public  sentiment,  and 
his  treatment  of  the  Pope  was  a  second  step  on  the  downward  path. 
His  first  mistake  had  been  the  conquest  of  Spain.  For  the  time 
being  he  was  still  successful. 

Austria  again  declared  war  in  1809,  and  was  defeated  in 
the  same  year  at  Wagram.  Carniola,  Carinthia,  part  of  Croatia, 
were  ceded  to  the  French  by  the  Peace  of  Schoenbrunn  (Shern- 
broon),  and  Napoleon,  divorced  from  his  first  wife,  Josephine, 
married  the  Austrian  Archduchess  Marra  Louisa,  daughter  of 
Francis  11. ,  in  1810. 

Russia  resented  the  incorporation  of  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
and  LUbeck  with  France,  as  prejudicial  to  lier  interests  in  the 
Baltic,  and  relaxed  the  restrictions  on  British  commerce.   Napoleon, 


THE     TIMES    OF    BONAPARTE.  297 

foreseeing  further  defection  of  this  ally  from  his  cause,  invaded 
Russia  with  700,000  men,  1812,  and  reached  Moscow.  By  the 
burning  of  Moscow,  set  in  flames  by  the  inhabitants,  October, 
1812,  his  army  was  compelled  to  retreat  in  the  dead  of  the  Russian 
winter.     Not  more  than  30,000  men  returned. 

The  failure  of  the  Russian  campaign  caused  a  general 
rising  of  Europe  against  Napoleon,  1813.  He  was  defeated  at 
Leipsic,  ''the  battle  of  the  nations."  The  allies  entered  Paris 
in  1814.  The  emperor  was  forced  to  abdicate,  and  was  given  pos- 
session of  the  Isle  of  Elba. 

Napoleon  re-entered  France,  while  the  ambassadors  of  all 
Europe  were  deliberating  at  Vienna,  overthrew  the  new  Bourbon 
government  of  Louis  XVIII.,  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  staked  his 
all  on  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  1815.  Defeated  by  Lord  Wel- 
lington, the  hero  of  the  English  campaigns  in  Spain,  Bonaparte  was 
exiled  to  St.  Helena,  where  he  died  in  1821. 

WESTERN    EUROPE,   AFTER    1815. 

Map  Study.— For  territories  mentioned  under  Congress  of  Vienna,  see  "  Europe  in  1816." 
This  map  should  be  compared  in  detail  with  Europe  in  1810  and  in  1748.  For  changes  of  the 
Franco-Austrian  war  of  1859,  of  the  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia  in  1866,  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  of  1870,  '71,  compare  "  Europe  in  1816"  with  maps  at  i)p.  298,  300, 

The  Congress  already  assembled  at  Vienna  continued  its 
session  after  Waterloo,  and  arranged  the  map  of  Europe  about  as  it 
stood  till  1859.  France  was  confined  to  its  old  boundaries,  and  the 
Bourbons  were  again  restored.  Prussia  obtained  the  West  Rhine 
country,  Westphalia,  and  part  of  Saxony.  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium were  united  in  one  kingdom  (divided  since  1830).  In  com- 
pensation for  Belgium,  Austria  regained  the  Venetian  terri- 
tory, once  given  her  by  Bonaparte.  The  Tyrol  and  Milan  were 
returned  to  Austria.  Tuscany  was  restored  to  its  Austrian 
branch  line.  The  Spanish  Bourbons  recovered  Naples  and  Sicily. 
The  Bourbon  dynasty  was  restored  in  Spain. 

The  general  efifect  of  Bonaparte's  career  and  of  the  FreucU 


298  WESTERN    EUROPE,    AFTER    1815. 

Kevolution  was,  territorially  speaking,  to  recompose  Germany. 
The  two  hundred  and  fifty  States  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  were 
reduced  to  thirty-nine,  and  these  were  correspondingly  enlarged. 

In  advancing  legal  equality  the  French  Eevolution  had  a 
marked  and  beneficial  influence  ovei-  Europe ;  but  it  substituted  an 
uncertain  and  changeable  series  of  governments  at  home  for  the  old 
hereditary  principle,  and  France  has  never  since  been  able  to  con- 
stitute a  stable  government. 

The  son  of  Louis  XVI.  had  died  in  prison,  1795.  Thus  the 
brother  of  Louis  XVI.  received  the  title  of  Louis  XVIIL  at  the 
Restoration  of  the  Bourbons  (Genealogy,  p.  290).  Louis  XVIIL 
died  in  1824.  His  brother,  Charles  X.,  was  expelled  by  revolution 
in  1830,  and  was  succeeded  by  Louis  Philippe  of  Orleans.  This 
line  of  Orleans  descended  from  the  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  Regent 
for  Louis  XV. 

The  Revolution  of  1848  drove  this  king  from  the  throne. 
France  became  a  Republic  before  the  end  of  the  year,  under  the 
presidency  of  Napoleon,  son  of  Louis,  Bonaparte's  brother. 

The  Empire  was  substituted  for  this  Republic  in  1852,  the 
President  of  the  Republic  becoming  Emperor  Napoleon  III. 

In  1854  began  the  Crimean  War.  France  and  England  allied 
to  protect  Turkey  from  Russian  invasion.  The  war  accomplished 
its  purpose,  and  for  the  time  crippled  the  power  of  Russia  by  the 
siege  and  capture  of  Sebastopol  in  the  Crimea. 

In  1859  Napoleon  III.  assisted  the  aspirations  of  Italy  to  expel 
its  Austrian  rulers,  by  espousing  the  cause  of  the  House  of  Savoy, 
under  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  "Sardinia"  (p.  256).  By  the 
battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  Austria  w\as  forced,  in  the  Peace 
of  Villafranca,  to  give  up  to  him  Milan.  The  incorporation  of 
the  other  Italian  States,  excepting  Venetia  and  the  Papal  terri- 
tory, with  the  new  Italian  kingdom,  followed  in  1860.  To  France 
were  ceded  Nice  and  Savoy. 

In  1866  the  rivalry  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  existing  since 
the  great  increase  of  the  former  power  in  1815,  resulted  in  war  for 


WESTERN    EUROPE,     AFTER    1500.  299 

the  supremacy  in  Genimny.  This  had  been  mainly  exercised  by 
Austria  since  1815.  The  pretext  of  the  war  was  a  quarrel  about 
the  government  of  the  Duchies  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein.  After 
the  victory  of  Koeniggraetz  (Kerniggrates)  in  Bohemia,  Prussian 
armies  were  about  to  march  on  Vienna,  when  Napoleon  III.  inter- 
vened, compelling  Prussia  to  accept  tlie  line  of  the  Main  as  bound- 
ary of  her  new  ascendency.  All  North  Germany  was  formed  into 
a  "  Bund,"  headed  by  Prussia,  which  retained  Sleswick-Holstein 
and  confiscated  Hanover,  Nassau,  Frankfort,  and  Hesse- 
Cassel  for  assistance  rendered  Austria,  thus  uniting  East  and  West 
Prussia  into  a  compact  State.  In  this  war  Italy  had  been  the  ally  of 
Prussia,  and  was  given  in  compensation  the  territory  of  Venetia. 

Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870,  '71. — Following  the  Resto- 
ration of  the  Bourbons  in  Spain,  after  1815,  they  reigned  till  the  de- 
thronement of  Qiieen  Isabella  II.  in  18G8.  Amadeus,  second  son  of 
Victor  Emmanuel,  the  Italian  king,  then  accepted  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy, but  abdicated  in  1870.  It  was  now  proposed  that  a  member 
of  the  Prussian  House  of  HohenzoUem  should  be  King  of  Spain. 
France  resented  this  effort  to  establish  Prussian  influence  beyond 
the  Pyrenees.  Prince  Bismarck,  the  Prussian  Minister,  resented  the 
restriction  on  Prussian  ambition  set  in  1866.  Hence  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  of  1870  and  1871.  France  was  overrun  by  the  Ger- 
man armies.  Paris  was  besieged  and  taken.  Part  of  Lorraine, 
acquired  after  1738 ;  Strasburg,  acquired  in  1681 ;  Alsace,  ac- 
quired in  1648  ;  and  Metz,  acquired  in  1552,  were  ceded  to  Ger- 
many with  the  bitterest  feelings.  Under  the  sentiment  of  patriotism 
roused  by  foreign  war;  Bismarck  constituted  the  Nevr  Grermanic 
Empire,  headed  by  Prussia,  in  which  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and 
Bavaria,  the  Saxon  Duchies,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  kingdom  of 
Wiirtemberg,  etc.,  resigned  their  diplomatic  and  military  indepen- 
dence, although  still  retaining  their  independent  courts. 

The  unification  of  Germany  has  not  answered  the  expecta- 
tions which  produced  it.  Under  the  direction  of  Bismarck,  Ger- 
many has  shown  an  overbearing  and  persecuting  spirit.     Her  mate- 


SUMMARY.  301 


SUMMARY  OF  THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION,  AND   OF  SUBSEQUENT  EVENTS 
IN  WEST  CONTINENTAL  EUROPE. 

Meeting  of  the  Notables ; •••••• a.  d.  1786 

National  Assembly "  ^'^^ 

Legislative  Assembly "  I'^'^l 

War  declared  on  Austria  and  Prussia.    National  Convention "  1T92 

Execution  of  Louis  XVI • "  ^'^93 

Death  of  Robespierre  ends  the  Reign  of  Terror "  1794 

French  Directory "  I'^'^S 

Bonaparte's  victories  in  Italy,  over  Austria,  of  Lodi  and  Arcole "  1796 

Peace  of  Campo  Formio • •  "  1^97 

Egyptian  Expedition • — *'  ^'^'98 

Bonaparte  " First  Consul" ...  "  1*799 

Marengo "  1800 

Peace  of  Luneville '"  1801 

Peace  of  Amiens "  1802 

England  again  declares  war "  180-3 

Bonaparte  crowned  Emperor "  1804 

Austerlitz.    Treaty  of  Pressburg "  1805 

Jena  and  Auerstadt     "  1806 

Peace  of  Tilsit "  1807 

Spain  occupied  by  the  French "  1808 

Wagram.    Peace  of  Schoenbrunn "  1809 

Bonaparte  marries  an  Austrian  Princess,  Maria  Louisa "  .1810 

His  son,  "  the  King  of  Rome,"  1 1832,  born "  1811 

Retreat  from  Moscow "  1813 

Battle  of  Leipsic "  1813 

Bonaparte  in  Elba "  1814 

Waterloo  and  Congress  of  Vienna "  1815 

Death  of  Bonaparte "  1821 

Deathof  Louis  XVIII "  1824 

Charles  X.  deposed "  1830 

Louis  Philippe  abdicated "  1848 

Napoleon  III.  Emperor "  1852 

Crimean  War "  1854 

"            ; "  1855 

"  1856 

Franco- Austrian  War » "  1859 

Italy  consolidated  under  the  House  of  Savoy "  1860 

War  between  Prussia  and  Austria *'  1866 

War  between  Prance  And  Prussia "  1870 

"       "  1871 


303 


ROMAN    PONTIFFS 


LIST  OF  THE   POPES  SINCE  1500. 


Alexander  VI A.  D.  1503t 

Piusin "  1503t 

Julius  n "  1513t 

LeoX "  1521t 

Adrian  VI "  1523t 

Clement  Vn "  1534t 

Paul  m "  1549t 

Julius  in "  1555t 

Marcellus  U "  1555t 

Paul  IV "  1559t 

Pius  IV "  1566t 

StPiusV •'  1572t 

Gregory  XIH "  1585t 

SixtusV   "  1590t 


Urban  VH a.  d.  1590t 

Gregory  XIV "  1591t 

Innocent  IX "  1592t 

Clement  VIH "  160&I- 

LeoXI "  1605t 

PaulV "  1621t 

Gregorj'XV "  1623t 

Urban  Vm "  1644+ 

Innocent  X "  1655+ 

Alexander  vn •'  1667+ 

Clement  IX "  1669+ 

Clement  X "  1676+ 

Innocent  XI "  1689+ 

Alexander  VIII....  "  1691+ 


Innocent  XII a.  d.  1700+ 

Clement  XI "  1721+ 

Innocent  Xni "  1724+ 

Benedict  Xm "  1730+ 

Clement  XII "  1740+ 

Benedict  XIV "  1758+ 

Clement  xm "  1769+ 

Clement  XTV "  1774+ 

Pius  VI ''  1799+ 

PiusVn "  1823+ 

LeoXn "  1829+ 

PiusVm "  1831t 

Gregory  XVI "  1846+ 

Pius  IX "  1878+ 


His  Holiness  Poue  Leo  XIIL 


ITALY  AND  THE  NETHERLANDS  SINCE   1500.    303 


DYNASTIC  ASCENDENCIES  IN  ITALY  SINCE  1500. 

Milan.— Hapsburg  Empire  of  Charles  V.  (after  1545)  till  1556. 

Spanish  Hapsburg  till  1700. 

Austrian  Hapsburg  after  1713  (intermission  during  French  Revolution)  till  1859. 

United  Italy  under  House  of  Savoy  since  1859. 
Venice.— Independent  till  the  French  Revolution,  1797. 

Austrian  after  1815  till  1866. 

United  Italy  under  House  of  Savoy  since  1866. 
Tuscany.— Medici  Grand  Dukes,  after  1530  till  1737. 

Austrian  Appanage  (branch  line)  through  Francis  of  Lorraine,  husband  of  Maria 
Theresa  (with  intermission  during  the  French  Revolution),  till  1860. 

United  Italy  under  House  of  Savoy  since  1860. 
Naples.— Hapsburg  Empire  of  Charles  V.  till  1556. 

Spanish  Hapsburg  till  1700. 

Austrian  Hapsburg,  after  1713,  till  1738. 

Spanish  Bourbon  (branch  line)  till  1860  (intermission  during  French  Revolution"). 

United  Italy  under  House  of  Savoy  after  1860. 
Sicily.— Hapsburg  Empire  of  Charles  V.  till  1556. 

Spanish  Hapsburg  till  1700. 

Possession  of  Savoy,  after  1713,  tiU  1720. 

Austrian  Hapsburg  till  1738. 

Spanish  Bourbon  (branch  line,  Naples  and  Sicily)  till  1860. 

United  Italy,  after  1860. 
Sardinia.— Hapsburg  Empire  of  Charles  V.  till  1556. 

Spanish  Hapsburg  till  1700. 

Austrian  Hapsburg,  after  1713,  till  1720. 

House  of  Savoy  till  the  present  time. 

The  smaller  Italian  states  are  omitted. 


DYNASTIC  ASCENDENCIES  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS  SINCE  1500. 

"Holland.— Hapsburg  Empire  of  Charles  V.  (from  Burgundian  inheritance)  till  1556. 

Spanish  Hapsburg  till  1566. 

Independent  Republic  till  French  Revolution,  1794. 

Kingdom  of  United  Netherlands,  after  1815,  till  1830. 

Separate  Kingdom  of  Holland  since  1830. 
Belgium.— Hapsburg  Empire  of  Charles  V.  (from  Burgundian  inheritance)  till  1556. 

Spanish  Hapsburg  till  1700. 

Austrian  Hapsburg,  after  1713,  till  French  Revolution,  1794. 

Kingdom  of  United  Netherlands,  after  1815,  till  1830. 

Separate  Kingdom  of  Belgium  since  1830. 


304         SOVEREIGNS    OF    THE     19th    CENTURY. 


FRENCH  RULERS,  19th  CENTURY. 

Bonaparte,  till , a.  d.  1815 

Louis  XVm.  till "    tl824 

Charles  X.  deposed "     1830 

Louis  Philippe  deposed "     1848 

Napoleon  in.  deposed "     1870 

BBPUBUCAN  PRBSIDBNTS. 

Thiers,tm "     1873 

MacMahon,  resigned "     1879 

Gr§vy 


PRUSSIAN    RULERS,    19th   CENTURY. 

Frederick  William  lU.,  till A.  d.  1840 

Frederick  William  IV.,  till "     1880 

Emperor  William.    (Imperial  title,  after  1871.) 

AUSTRIAN    RULERS,   19th    CENTURY. 

Francis  II.,  after  1806  as  Emperor  Francis  I.  of  Austria  (p.  306),  till a.  d.  1832 

Ferdinand  IV.,  abdicated "     1848 

Francis  Joseph. 

SPANISH    RULERS,   19th   CENTURY. 

Charles IV.,  till ....a.d.1808 

Ferdinand  VIL,  till "     1833 

Isabella  IL,  deposed "     1868 

Amadeas,  abdicated "     1870 

Alphonso  n. 

KINGS   OF   ITALY,    19th   CENTURY. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  till a.  d.  1878 

Humbert. 

Synchronistic  Exercise  on  the  16th  Century.— Write  out  a  new  table,  uniting  the 
chronologies  for  Germany  and  France  at  pp.  245,  269.     Arrange  the  dates  in  the  order  of  time. 

Synchronistic  Exercise  on  the  17th  Century.— Write  out  a  new  table,  uniting  the 
chronologies  for  Germany  and  France  at  pp.  253,  282. 

Synchronistic  Exercise  on  the  18th  Century.-  Write  out  a  new  table,  uniting  th*- 
chronologies  for  Gtermany  and  France  at  pp.  260, 289. 


BOOK   III. 

MODERN    HISTORY 


(CONTINUED.) 


IRELAND;   ENGLAND;   SCANDINAVIA;    RtTSSIA; 
POLAND;    AND    TURKEY. 


IRELAND 

FIRST    PERIOD. 


FROM    PREHISTORIC  TIMES  TO  THE   FIFTH   CENTURY. 

The  Race. — The  Irish  nation  belongs  to  a  race  mentioned  in  previous 
pages  (p.  31)— the  Celtic  or  Keltic.  (The  first  orthography  is  general,  the  latter 
is  used  preferably  by  men  of  science.)  Of  this  race  the  French  nation  is  also  a 
member,  though  mixed  with  foreign  elements,  while  the  blood  of  the  Spanish 
is  a  mixture  of  Celtic  with  Iberian.  The  same  Celtic  race  once  peopled  the 
whole  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  Welsh  and  the  Highland  Scotch  are 
iis  existing  representatives  in  these  countries. 

Some  general  characteristics  of  the  Celtic  race  have  been  mentioned 
in  the  History  of  France.  The  Celts  are  by  nature  enthusiastic  and  impulsive, 
spirited,  quick,  and  endowed  with  much  natural  genius.  The  wit  of  the  French 
and  Irish  is  notoriously  rapid  and  delicate,  as  opposed  to  the  slow  and  some- 
times ponderous  humor  of  the  English.  The  Highlanders  of  Scotland  were 
renowned,  and  still  are,  among  the  British  regiments,  for  their  rapid  and  head- 
long battle  onslaughts,  and  the  gallant  dash  of  French  and  Irish  soldiers  is  also 
famous.  The  Welsh  have  been  obscured  in  modern  times  by  being  swallowed 
up  in  general  English  society,  but  their  natural  genius,  like  that  of  the  Irish 
and  the  French,  is  superior  to  that  of  the  Anglo  Saxon  English.  In  musical 
talent  they  are  known  to  excel.  Their  genius  inspired  the  literature  of  Eng- 
land in  its  early  days  (see  England,  under  15th  century),  and  also  furnished  it 
with  the  fables  on  which  both  Tennyson  and  Edmund  Spenser  have  depended. 

The  Irish  Celts.— No  other  country  has  shown  the  Celtic  traits  so  clearly 
and  held  to  them  so  firmly  as  Ireland.  The  Scotch  Highlanders,  of  small  num- 
bers and  living  in  a  barren  country  remote  from  cultivating  inflaences,  have 
figured  in  history  only  as  brave  predatory  warriors.  The  Welsh  have  been 
nearly  submerged  by  English   influences.      The   French   were  diverted  from 


308  IRELAND. 

unmixed  Celtic  tendencies  by  the  forms  of  Roman  and  of  Feudal  organism.  But 
to  these  the  Irish  never  submitted,  and  thus  their  character  stands  pre-eminent 
as  a  manifestation  of  the  possibilities  and  greatness  of  the  Celtic  nature. 

Antiquity  of  the  Irish. — According  to  the  natural  order  in  which  Sla- 
vonian peoples  (namely,  Russians,  Bulgarians,  Servians,  Poles,  Bohemians)  are 
placed  in  Eastern  Europe ;  while  Germanic  peoples  (Germans,  Dutch,  Danes, 
Norwegians,  Swedes,  and  Anglo-Saxon  English)  come  next  beyond  in  order 
towards  the  West ;  it  will  be  inferred  that  the  Celts  preceded  the  Germans  and 
Slavonians  in  their  migration  from  Asia.  They  were  naturally  pushed  west- 
ward by  the  later  comers.  So  it  would  be  understood  how  it  is  that  the  Irish 
Celts  lay  claim,  and  establish  it,  to  high  antiquity.  They  belong  to  the  most 
ancient  Celtic  settlers  of  Europe.  The  Erse  (Irish)  language  is  known  by 
students  to  be  the  most  primitive  and  least  corrupted  dialect  of  the  Celtic. 

Phoenician  Commerce. — The  first  maritime  visitors  to  the  British  Isles, 
through  whom  the  ancient  nations  of  Southern  Europe  obtained  knowledge  of 
Ireland,  were  the  Phoenicians.  First  settled  as  a  historic  people  on  the  coast 
of  Syria,  where  they  were  the  natural  traders  between  the  great  Eastern  States 
of  Egypt  and  Chaldseo- Assyria,  they  passed  to  a  sea  trade  with  all  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  exchanging  for  the  raw  products  of  the  then  barbarous  Greeks, 
Italians,  and  other  Mediterranean  nations,  the  manufactured  products  of  the 
East.  It  was  from  the  Phcenicians  that  the  Greeks  acquired  the  first  knowledge 
of  "lerne";  thus  they  named  Ireland.  All  the  literature  of  the  Phoenicians 
has  perished,  but  a  Latin  author  of  the  4th  century  a.  d.  (Festus  Avienus)  copied 
Phoenician  records  of  a  Carthaginian  temple,  dating  from  the  7th  century  B.  c. 
From  this  copied  record  of  the  7th  century  before  Christ  it  appears  that  Ireland 
had  been  known  to  this  people  from  "  ancient "  times  as  the  "  Sacred  Island." 

Phoenician  Influence.— The  Phoenicians  are  held  to  have  made  their 
first  trading  voyages  to  the  British  Isles  as  early  as  B.  c.  1300,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  poet  shows  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  lerne  (Ireland)  than 
with  Albion  (England).  The  Phoenicians  had  extensive  settlements  in  Spain, 
not  only  the  famous  Gades  (Cadiz),, and  along  the  south  and  eastern  coast,  but 
also  along  the  shore  of  Galicia.  From  the  existence  of  these  settlements  on 
the  west  coast  of  Spain  we  can  understand  more  readily  how  an  active  inter- 
course could  have  been  maintained  with  Ireland.  From  Cape  Ortegal  to  Cape 
Clear  is  150  leagues,  two-thirds  of  the  way  in  sight  of  land. 

Ancient  Navigration.— Julias  Caesar  describes  the  large  seaworthy  vessels  of  the  Veneti 
on  the  west  coast  of  France,  with  leathern  sails,  and  iron  anchors  and  iron  cables,  and  the 
Phcenicians  were  no  less  provided  with  vessels  which  could  brave  the  ocean.  (About  600  b.  c. 
they  had  circumnavigated  Africa.)  The  boats  of  the  Irish  themselves  were  apparently  of 
frailer  description— of  hide- covered  wicker  work ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  made  voy- 


EARLY    HISTORY.  309 

ages  of  extent  in  these  boats,  possibly  using  stronger  ones  on  occasion.  They  reached  Ice- 
land, for  instance,  in  the  8th  century  after  Christ,  and  were  used  to  remaining  for  days  out  of 
sight  of  land. 

Early  Civilization.— This  intercourse  with  the  Phoenicians,  well  authen- 
ticated as  it  is,  assists  us  to  comprehend  how  this  island  might  boast,  centuries 
before  Christ,  of  wealth,  luxury,  and  civilization.  The  earliest  Irish  alphabet 
consisted,  like  the  Phoenician,  of  sixteen  letters,  and  was  doubtless  drawn  from 
it.  Carved  inscriptions  in  this  "Ogham"  writing  are  found.  To  the  Phoeni- 
cian period  are  attributed  the  coal-mining  excavations  at  Ballycastle,  on  the 
coast  of  Antrim.  Other  mining  excavations  bear  close  resemblance  to  mines 
in  Cornwall,  attributed  to  the  Phoenicians.  Beads  of  Egyptian  manufacture 
have  been  found,  and  swords  exactly  resembling  those  of  Carthaginian  style, 
as  elsewhere  known. 

The  Irish  Cominerce  with  Spain,  Avhich  continued  in  the  Roman  period,  is  brought 
vividly  to  the  imagination  by  a  phrase  found  in  Tacitus,  the  Roman  historian  of  the  Ist  cen- 
tury A.  D.  He  remarks  that  the  waters  and  harbors  of  Ireland  were  better  known  through  the 
resort  of  commerce  and  navigation  than  those  of  Britain.  This  evidently  could  be  only 
through  a  Spanish  Roman  medium.  The  remark  of  Tacitus  is  curiously  supported  by  the 
geography  of  Ptolemy,  of  the  2d  century  a,  d.,  who  makes  some  remarkable  errors  in  the 
geography  of  North  Britain,  but  shows  considerable  accuracy  as  to  Ireland  ;  and  yet  most  of 
Britain  was  Roman  possession  at  the  time,  and  Ireland  was  not.  Ptolemy  gives  names  of 
tribes  in  Southern  Ireland  corresponding  with  names  of  tribes  in  Spain.  The  river  Kenmare 
was  called  lerne  ;  there  was  a  river  of  the  same  name  in  Spain.  All  these  points  give  credence 
to  the  tradition  which  peoples  Ireland  by  Celtic  tribes  from  Spain.  According  to  the  Bards 
the  sons  of  Milesius  had  sailed  from  the  Tower  of  Betanzos  in  Galicia.  (In  our  own  times 
Kinsale  and  Galway  have  the  physiognomy  of  Spanish  towns.) 

Ireland  settled  from  Spain.— Thus,  from  the  known  intercourse  with  Phoenicians  and 
with  Spain,  it  is  natural  to  argue  that  the  first  settlements  of  the  island  by  Celts  were  from 
Spain :  not  from  Gaul  or  Britain.  If  the  Irish  Celtfe  had  passed  over  from  Britain,  it  would  be 
diiiicult  to  explain  why  intercourse  with  Spain  should  not  have  been  equally  active  for  both 
islands. 

Early  History. — The  chronicles  and  ancient  traditions  of  the 
country  carry  back  the  lines  of  Irish  kings  more  than  a  thousand 
years  before  Christ.  As  the  Celtic  settlement  preceded,  cr  was  at 
least  contemporary  with,  the  earliest  Phoenician  trading  expeditions, 
there  is  no  reason  for  questioning  the  existence  of  the  Irish  royal 
dynasties  at  this  early  time.  Authenticity  of  detail  and  approximate 
accuracy  of  date  are  generally  conceded  from  about  the  year  300  b.  c. 
downward.  About  this  time  the  historian  Tigernach — of  the  11th 
century  a.    d.^  a  thoroughly    sober   and    matter-of-fact  writer — 


310  IRELAND. 

begins  his  account.  The  building  of  a  splendid  palace  at  Ema- 
nia,  not  far  from  Tara,  is  recorded  for  the  reign  of  Kimbaoth  at 
this  time. 

The  lists  of  kings,  and  details  of  their  lives,  run  on  clearly 
enough  from  this  point  to  the  time  of  St.  Patrick.  This  was  the  5th 
century  A.  D.,  the  time  of  the  overthrow  of  the  West-Roman  Empire. 

Notwithstanding  the  proximity  of  the  Roman  rule  in  Britain,  no 
attempt  was  ever  made  to  subdue  the  island  by  Roman  arms.  The 
Irish  institutions,  laws,  and  customs,  as  far  as  they  did  not  conflict 
with  Christianity,  were  therefore  transmitted  unbroken  from  the 
Pagan  to  the  Christian  period.  This  is  why  the  Celtic  institutions 
can  be  studied  in  their  purest  form  only  in  this  country. 

Institutions.— The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  of  institution  regards  the  method  of 
holding  land.  Land  was  owned  in  common  bj'  the  clan,  i.  e.,  by  a  community  of  one  family 
blood.  Every  clansman  had  an  equal  right  to,  and  share  in  the  land,  by  virtue  of  his  family 
membership.  The  absence  of  selfish  and  mercenary  traits  in  Irish  character  is  one  expression 
and  result  of  this  race  custom.  Or  it  would  be  equally  well  to  say  that  the  absence  of  selfish- 
ness could  alone  explain  the  custom.  The  aversion  to  living  in  walled  towns  or  castles  and 
to  the  use  of  body  armoi-— traits  apparent  as  national  habits  even  in  times  when  these  things 
seemed  to  be  necessary — all  point  to  a  conception  of  life  in  which  c- ...  c*re  not  hunted  by  theit 
fellows,  or  taken  unfair  advantage  of  by  others. 

The  Irish  law  was  called  "  Brehon  "  law.  The  Brehons  were  legislators  who  were  at  thfe 
same  time  judges  and  lawyers.  Their  punishments  were  mild,  their  traditions  humane  and 
generous,  but  they  were  respected  and  obeyed. 

The  Bards.— An  equally  important  class  was  that  of  the  Bards,  at  once  poets  and  mu- 
sicians, who  also  were  the  guardians  of  history  and  tradition,  Irish  poetry  holds  high  rank. 
The  use  of  rhyme,  generally  attributed  to  the  Arabs  in  Spain,  is  found  in  am  Irish  Latin  poem 
of  the  5th  century  a.  d.,  the  earliest  instance  of  its  use.  The  use  of  the  harp  is  attested  as  far 
back  as  the  7th  century  b.  c.  at  least.  An  author  of  the  12th  century  a.  d.,  otherwise  hostile  to 
the  Irish,  speaks  of  their  music  in  terms  of  enthusiastic  admiration.  The  Welsh  bards  were 
accustomed  to  receive  their  instruction  in  Ireland  as  late  as  the  11th  century.  Lord  Bacon  says 
that  no  harp  has  so  melting  and  prolonged  a  sound  as  the  Irish, 

The  hospitality  which  is  still  proverbial  in  our  own  time,  was  always  a  national 
virtue.  The  story  of  a  chief  who  was  about  to  burn  his  castle  as  an  excuse  for  sending  his 
guests  home,  rather  than  confess  that  he  had  no  more  stores  of  provisions  for  them,  is  of  late 
date— perhaps  a  fable  ;  but  the  extravagance  and  profusion  of  attention  to  strangers  and  guests 
find  illustration  in  every  period.  Permanent  signs  signifying  that  every  wayfarer  should  turn 
aside  for  gratuitous  entertainment  have  been  known  to  exist  down  to  late  times.  The  English 
historian,  Bede,  tells  us  that  foreign  students  were  not  only  given  gratuitous  instruction,  but 
also  were  gratuitously  fed,  clothed  and  lodged  in  the  Irish  schools  of  learning. 

The  Government  was  patriarchal  monarchy.  A  supreme  king  was  chosen,  ruling  from 
Tara,  but  his  power  was  rather  that  of  a  nominal  than  of  an  actual  head.    ThQ  minor  king- 


SECOND    PERIOD. 


11 


doms  over  which  he  ruled  were  often  practically  independent,  and  much  contention  pre- 
vailed amon^  them,  as  well  as  among  the  clans  themselves.  These  contentions  were,  how- 
ever, more  as  to  points  of  honor  in  the  matter  of  precedence  than  for  gain  or  conquest.  The 
successor  of  a  king  was  generally  appointed  in  his  lifetime,  and  called  "  Tanist."  The  Tanist 
thus  became  a  sort  of  rival  king,  and  many  email  wars  were  fought  in  consequence. 

The  virtues  of  character  and  of  institutions  which  Ireland  boasts  in  her  pagan  period 
undoubtedly  explain  the  wonderful  rapidity  of  Christian  conversion.  The  lack  of  Irish  martyrs 
was  made  a  reproach  by  the  Norman  barons,  when  they  invaded  the  island,  but  it  is  the 
highest  test  of  Irish  civilization  in  pagan  times  that  Christianity  made  its  way  without  perse- 
cution and  almost  without  resistance.  The  Irish  Druids  who,  with  the  Bards  and  Brehons, 
made  up  the  three  especially  esteemed  and  favored  classes,  must  have  been  in  the  5th  century, 
A.  D.,  rather  men  of  science  and  of  learning  than  devotees  of  the  crael  mysteries  undoubtedly 
known  to  Druidism  in  other  countries  and  in  earlier  times. 

The  Monumental  remains  of  the  Irish  Druid  worship  are  of  the  same  kind  as  are 
found  in  England  and  in  France.    Circles  of  upright  stones  of  large  size,  like  that  at  Stone- 


Druid  Worship. 

henge  in  England,  i^erved  as  open-air  temples  for  the  religious  rites.  Cromleachs,  or  Dolmens 
(p.  175),  large  stones,  supported  at  one  end  or  both  ends  by  others,  served  at  once  as  tombs 
and  altars  of  sacrifice.  Menhirs,  single  erect  blocks  of  large  size,  were  symbols,  as  with  the 
Phoenicians,  of  divinity.  The  partial  dependence,  at  least,  of  Celtic  Druidism  on  Eastern  influ- 
ence is  made  probable  by  the  consideration  that  the  art  of  moving  the  immense  blocks  of  stone 
used  in  the  Dolmens  and  Menhirs  was  an  Eastern  art,  and  by  many  customs  and  verbal  analo- 
gies pointing  to  Eastern  sun  and  fire  worship. 

Map  Study.— See  modern  maps  for  Galicia,  Cape  Ortegal,  Cape  Clear,  Ballycastle,  Antrim, 
Cornwall,  Kinsale,  Galway,  Tara,  Stonehenge. 


SECOND  PERIOD:  FROM  A.  D.  432  TO  ABOUT  800. 

Conversion  to   Christianity.— It  is  not  supposed  that   St. 
Patrick's  mission,  a.  d.  432,  brought  the  first  knowledge  of  Chri^- 


312 


IRELAND 


"St.  Kevin's  Kitchen,"  Glendalongh. 
{An  Oratory  of  the  6th  Century.) 


tianity  to  Ireland.     St.  Patrick  speaks  of  being  in  districts  "  where 

no  missionary  had  been   before."      The  terms  of  his  mission  from 

Pope  Celestine  were  to 
those  "believing  in  Christ," 
and  there  is  no  reason  for 
thinking  that  the  British, 
under  Roman  rule,  could 
have  numbered  many 
Christians  as  early  as  the 
2d  centur}',  without  some 
influence  on  the  neighbor- 
ing country.  However,  it 
is  certain  that  Ireland  was 
generally  Pagan  before  St. 
Patrick,  and  generally 
Christian  from  the  time  of 

his  mission.     King  Leoghaire  (Leary)  was  ruling  over  the  country 

when  the  Saint  appeared  at  the  Court  of  Tara. 

St.  Patrick  was  born  387  a.  d.  near  Boulogne  (in  Northeastern  Gaul).  His  parents 
were  people  of  rank.  In  the  disturbances  which  France  (then  part  of  the  Boman  Empire)  was 
enduring  through  the  German  attacks  on  the  Rhine  frontier,  her  coasts  were  also  exposed  to 
predatory  excursions.  The  Irish  king,  Nial,  "  of  the  Nine  Hostages,"  made  a  descent  op  the 
coast  and  carried  St.  Patrick  with  other  captives  to  Ireland,  a.  d.  403.  Here  he  became  a  slave 
and  a  herdsman  of  sheep  in  the  County  of  Antrim.  His  master  was  named  Milcho.  In  the 
seventh  year  of  slavery  he  made  his  escape  and  relumed  to  Gaul.  He  then  studied  four  years 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Martin,  near  Tours. 

Having  placed  himself  under  the  instruction  of  St.  Germain  of  Auxerre,  he  accompanied  him 
in  429  to  Britain  to  combat  the  Pelagian  heresy.  Hence  he  was  recommended  by  St.  Germain 
to  the  Pope  as  a  fit  person  to  undertake  a  mission  to  Ireland.  Meantime  Palladius  had  been 
despatched  for  this  purpose,  431  a.  d.  Some  of  his  disciples  made  known  the  death  of 
Palladius  to  St.  Patrick,  and  he  then  landed  in  Ireland,  432  a.  d.,  at  Dublin  (probably). 

His  first  pronounced  success  was  in  braving  the  king  and  his  ministers  and  court  at  Tara. 
His  bearing  and  sermons  won  him  the  tolerance  of  Leary,  though  the  king  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  himself  a  convert.  Leary's  leading  Bard  instantty  devoted  his  talents  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  from  this  day  till  his  death,  in  465,  the  career  of  St.  Patrick  was  one  of  constant 
activity  and  constant  success.  His  work  was  organized  and  established  by  the  foundation 
of  the  Episcopal  seat  of  Armagh,  not  far  from  the  ancient  palace  of  Emauia. 

Irish  Influence  on  Europe.— Ireland  owes  her  brilliant  period  in  the 
centuries  following  St.  Patrick  not  only  to  natural  genius.     This  was  assisted 


SECOND    PERIOD.  313 

by  general  causes.  In  the  disturbances  and  convulsions  which.  England, 
France.  Spain,  and  Italy  suffered  by  the  German  invasions,  Ireland  was  at  peace. 
In  the  revolution  and  break  up  which  European  society  experienced  in  passing 
from  antiquity  to  the  Middle  Age,  Irish  institutions  were  unchanged. 

This  period  of  revolution  and  disturbance,  as  we  shall  notice  from  preceding 
pages  and  especially  from  the  accounts  under  the  heading  of  German  History, 
was  in  the  5th,  6th,  7th,  and  8th  centuries  especially.  (With  Charlemagne,  about 
800  A.  D.,  the  reorganization  of  Europe  begins.)  In  these  centuries  Ireland  was 
not  only  protected  by  her  insular  position  from  the  inroads  of  barbarism,  but 
the  civilization  and  culture  of  the  other  countries  also  sought  refuge  and  pro- 
tection here  in  the  persons  of  nearly  all  learned  and  studious  men  of  the  times. 

The  Irish  schools  were  frequeutedby  thousands  of  foreigners,  bo  that  the  biographies  of 
the  ecclesiastics  of  other  European  countries  mention  their  studies  in  them  generally  as  a 
matter  of  course.  Not  only  did  the  Irish  universities— especially  famous  those  of  Lismore, 
Clonmacnoise,  Armagh  and  Bangor— thus  diffuse  learning  and  culture  over  other  countries  by 
the  return  home  of  their  own  native  students,  but  the  Irish  themselves  became  the  missionaries 
of  Europe. 

Irish  Learning.— Their  standing  as  men  of  letters  and  of  mind  is  not  simply  one  of  com- 
parative excellence.  The  Irish  poet  SeduJius  (Shiel),  contemporary  of  St.  Patrick,  but  not 
resident  in  Ireland,  was  the  author,  among  other  works  of  acknowledged  merit,  of  a  spirited 
poem  upon  the  life  of  Christ,  the  Paschale  Opus,  from  which  the  Catholic  Church  has  selected 
some  of  her  most  beautiful  hymns.  Adamnan's  life  of  St.  Columba,  written  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury, is  considered  a  model  of  excellent  Latin  style.  In  the  8th  century  Virgilius  (Feargal), 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Salzburg,  asserted  the  doctrine  of  tlie  earth's  rotundity  in  a  time  when 
the  belief  in  this  truth  had  apparently  disappeared.  In  the  9th  century  the  layman  Scotus  Eri- 
gena  was  a  renowned  master  of  philosophy  and  dialectics  at  the  Court  of  Charlemagne.  In 
the  10th  century  the  English  Saint  Dunstan  owed  his  leaniing  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  astrono- 
my, and  music,  to  the  instruction  of  Iri>^h  monks  at  Glastonbury.  In  the  11th  century  lived 
the  Irish  historians  Tigemach  and  Marianus  Scotus,  the  latter  long  resident  at  Fulda  in  Ger- 
many, and  author  of  the  first  General  History  attempted  in  medieval  times. 

Irish  Missions. — It  was  in  the  time  immediately  following  St. 
Patrick's,  that  Irish  missionaries  to  foreign  countries  were  especially 
active — the  6th,  7th,  and  8th  centuries  being  those  in  which  other 
countries  were  most  backward.  In  order  of  time  the  first,  and  also 
first  in  order  of  importance,  was  St.  Columba,  or  Columbkill,  born 
of  the  royal  family  of  the  Nials  (CNeils)  of  Ulster,  on  the  father's 
side,  and  of  a  princely  house  of  Leinster  on  the  side  of  his  mother. 

lona.— Since  the  3d  century  (258  A.  d.),  a  branch  of  the  Nial 
family  had  established  a  colony  in  Scotland,  corresponding  at  first 
to  the  territory  of  Argyle,  then   reaching  into  Boss  and   Perth, 


314 


IRELAND. 


and  including  the  islands  of  the  Hebrides.  From  the  king  of 
this  colony,  his  relative  Conal,  Columbkill  obtained  a  grant  of  the 
island  of  lona,  and  here  he  founded  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
monasteries  of  the  world.  This  island  is  still  covered  with  ruins 
of  ecclesiastical  structures.    From  lona  went  forth  the  mission- 


The  Ruins  of  lona. 

aries  who  converted  the  Picts  of  Scotland  and  of  the  Orkneys. 
Columbkill  himself  penetrated  beyond  the  Grampians,  and  was  per- 
sonally no  less  the  missionary  of  Scotland  than  St.  Patrick  was  the 
missionary  of  Ireland.  The  Saint  died  in  596.  The  year  in  which 
the  first  Roman  missionaries  landed  in  Kent  was  597. 

St.  Columba.— "  Of  his  tenderness  an  well  as  energy  of  character  tradition  and  bis  biog- 
raphers have  recorded  many  Instances;  among  others,  bis  habit  of  ascending  an  eminence  every 


SECOND    PERIOD.  315 

evening  at  sunset,  to  look  over  towards  the  coast  of  his  native  land.  The  spot  ie  called  by  the 
islanders  to  this  day  '  the  place  of  the  back  turned  upon  Ireland.'  The  fishermen  of  the 
Hebrides  long  believed  they  could  see  their  saint  flitting  over  the  waves  after  every  new  storm, 
counting  the  islands  to  see  if  any  of  them  had  foundered."— (McGee.)  In  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  is  now  preserved  a  splendid  MS.  copy  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  a  cover  richly  ornamented 
with  gold.  It  is  held  to  be  the  same  one  long  kept  in  the  monastery  of  Kells  and  written  by 
the  hand  of  St.  Columbkill. 

Lindisfarne.— In  the  time  following  his  death,  lona  sent  out  the  Apostle  of  North  Eng- 
land, St.  Aidan,  just  before  the  middle  of  the  7th  century.  He  established  on  the  island  of 
Lindisfarne,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Tweed,  a  monastery  which  became  the  centre  of  Chris- 
tian influence  and  civilization  for  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  Northumbria,  parent  of  the  Bishopric 
of  Durham  and  of  the  Archbishopric  of  York. 

Irish  Missions  to  the  Franks.— The  Picts  of  Scotland  and 
the  Anglo-Saxons  of  England  were  pagans  at  the  close  of  the  6th 
century,  but  the  Christian  population  of  France  had  sunken  into  a 
degradation  which  needed  missionary  labor  no  less.  The  barbarism 
of  the  German  Franks,  first  christianized  under  Clovis,  only  a  cen- 
tury before,  had  rieacted  on  the  Christian  Eoman  population  of 
Gaul.  It  was  in  this  country  that  another  Irish  Apostle  first  became 
renowned. 

Columbanus,  the  namesake  of  Columbkill,  was  born  in  559  a.  d. 
in  the  province  of  Leinster,  and  entered  the  monastery  of  Bangor  in 
Ulster,  where  he  mastered  both  Greek  and  Hebrew.  Devoting 
himself  with  twelve  worthy  companions  to  missions  in  France,  he 
founded  within  the  realms  of  Thierry  and  Brunehilda  the  monas- 
teries of  Luxeuil  and  Fontaines  (in  Franche-Comte).  By  his  pro- 
tests against  the  wickedness  of  these  sovereigns  he  lost  their  protec- 
tion and  favor,  but  courageously  persisted  in  defying  their  malice. 
He  v/as  compelled  to  leave  their  dominions,  but  was  well  received  at 
the  Frankish  courts  of  Theodobert  and  Clotaire,  who  soon  after 
reunited  the  Frankish  dominions.  (The  various  local  divisions  of 
the  Frankish  State  before  Charlemagne  have  been  omitted  in  this 
history  as  too  complicated  and  perplexing  for  students.) 

From  France  Columbanus  made  his  way  to  Italy  and  the  Lom- 
bard court  at  Milan.  In  the  Lombard  dominions  he  finally  settled, 
founding  in  the  Apennines  the  monastery  of  Bobbio,  and  dying  in 
G15  A.  D.     At  Bobbio  his  coffin,  chalice,  holly  stafi",  and  an  Irish 


316 


IRELAND. 


missal  are  still  shown.  His  memory  also  lives  in  the  name  of 
the  beautifully  situated  town  of  San  Columbano  in  the  territory 
of  Lodi. 


Convent  of  St.  Gall.— A  disciple  of  Colambanns  was  Gallus,  who  founded  on  the  Lake 
of  Constance,  in  Switzerland,  the  celebrated  Convent  of  St.  Gall.  The  architect's  plan  of  thi.s 
convent  has  been  preserved.  It  shows  by  the  various  apartments,  assigned  to  monks  of  differ- 
ent trades  and  occupations,  th.it  such  monasteries  were  centres,  not  only  of  learning  and  relig- 
ion, but  also  of  industiy  and  of  the  mechanical  arts. 

Irish  Missions  in  Germany.— In  the  7th  century  an  Anglo-Saxon  king  and  a  Frankish 
king  were  educated  in  Ireland— Alfred  of  Northumbria  and  Dagobert  II.  The  latter  appointed 
the  Irish  St.  Arbogast  to  be  Bishop  of  Strassburg.  His  friend  and  countryman,  St.  Florentius, 
succeeded  him  in  this  office.  St.  Wire,  of  County  Clare,  was  Confessor  of  the  Frankish  Pepin 
of  Heristal.  At  Ratisbou  (Kegensburg),  in  modern  Bavaria,  the  tombs  of  two  brothers,  Erard 
and  Albert,  distinguished  Irish  saints  of  this  time,  were  long  shown.  The  reputation  of  St. 
Fridolin,  a  native  of  Conuanght,  lives  along  the  Rhine.  He  established  a  monastery  on  the 
island  of  Seckingen.  St.  Killian  is  called  the  Apostle  of  Franconia  (Central  and  West-Central 
Gei-many).  He  is  the  patron  Saint  of  "W^urzburg,  in  Bavaria.  The  Irish  St.  Cataldus,  the  patron 
Saint  of  Tarentum,  in  Southern  Italy,  belongs  to  the  late  7th  or  early  8th  century. 

In  the  9th  century  Charlemagne  placed  two  Irishmen,  Albiuus  and  Clement,  over  the 
universities  of  Paris  and  Pavia.  This  sovereign,  wishing  to  inform  himself  on  the  reputed 
occurrence  of  two  solar  eclipses  in  810,  addressed  himself  to  the  Irishman  Dungal,  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Denis.  The  reply  of  the  latter  has  been  preserved,  and  i)roves  the  writer  an 
accomplished  astronomer.  Of  the  same  period  was  the  Irish  Bishop  of  Fiesole,  in  Italy, 
Donatus. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  Irish  monks  held,  from  the  6th  to  the  9th  century, 

thirteen  monasteries  in  Scotland,  twelve  in 
England,  twelve  in  Brittany,  eleven  in 
Burgundy,  seven  in  other  parts  of  France, 
seven  in  Lorraine,  nine  in  Belgium,  ten  in 
Alsace,  sixteen  in  Bavaria,  fifteen  in  the 
Tyrol,  Switzerland  and  Suabia,  others  un- 
computed  in  Thuringia  (Saxon  Duchies), 
and  on  the  left  Rhine  h&nk.—{T/i€baud, 
"  Msk  Hace.'') 

The  Female  Orders.— The  activity 
of  study  and  the  extent  of  learning  in  Ire- 
land itself  are  sufficiently  attested  by  the 
foregoing  matter,  but  we  must  not  omit 
mention  of  the  Female  Orders.  St.  Bridget 
was  twelve  years  old  when  St.  Patrick  died, 
and  she  died  in  525  a.  d.,  four  years  after 

o  _i  *  _i         «    «        ^  «*t.  />!    *       -ara      Columbkill  was  bom.    From  her  activity 

Scriptorium  of  a  Monastery.   15th  Centnry  MS.  .      .,,,,.         -   „       i     r*  ^    „ 

*^  J  J  ^^^^^    jjjg    ingtitution   of   Female   Orders 

throughout  Ireland.     Her  especially  famous  foundation,  at  the  request  of  the  people  of 

Leinster,  was  the  monastery  and  town  of  Kildare. 


SECOND    PERIOD. 


317 


Irish  in  Scotland. — From  the  territory  of  Dalriada  (Antrim)  in  North- 
west Ulster,  it  was  but  fourteen  miles  to  the  nearest  Scotch  coast  of  Argyle. 
Carbry  Riada,  of  the  Nial  family,  ruler  of  Irish  Dalriada,  founded  the  State 
of  Scottisli  Dalriada  in  358,  a.  d.  Community  of  blood  with  the  Picts  of  Scot- 
land and  superiority  of  civilization  made  it  easy  to  establish  and  extend  this 
colony. 

The  "  Scots." — In  the  time  of  the  Romans  in  Britain,  and  following  their 
withdrawal,  constant  mention  is  made  of  the  incursions  into  England  of  the 
"  Picts  and  Scots."  The  Picts  were  the  native  and  barbarian  Celtic  population 
of  Scotland,  the  Scots  were  the  Irish  settlers.  "  Scoti "  was  the  name  given  to 
the  Irish  by  foreigners,  and  long  confined  to  them.  From  the  3d  century,  a.  d., 
when  the  "  Scots "  first  settled  in  Argyleshire,  their  relation  to  their  Pictish 
brethren  had  been,  in  matters  of  pfeneral  civilization,  that  of  superior  to 
inferior.  The  influence  of  the  "  Scots,"  as  Christian  missionaries  and  civilizers 
from  the  time  when  Columbkill  established  the  monastery  of  lona,  in  the  6th 
century,  was  all  powerful.  Conal,  the  relative  of  Columbkill,  was  the  sixth  in 
the  line  of  princes  of  Scottish  Dalriada.  The  first  was  Loam  More,  from  whom 
was  named  the  district  and  Marquisate  of  Lome.  The 
successor  of  Conal,  Aidan,  anointed  by  Columbkill,  raised 
the  colony  to  practical  independence  of  the  mother 
country. 

Kenneth  McAlpine. — So  rapid  was  the  expansion 
and  influence  of  the  Irish  colony,  through  the  missions 
of  the  monks  of  lona,  that  Kenneth  McAlpine,  843,  A.  D., 
replaced  the  line  of  Pictish  rulers,  and  "  Caledonia  "  was 
united  under  the  sway  of  the  Irish,  or  "  Scottish  "  line. 
Either  in  direct  or  female  succession  it  continued  to  give 
kings  to  Scotland  till  the  union  with  England  under 
James  I. 

The  celebrated  Lia  Fail,  or  Stone  of  Destiny,  on  which  the 

kings  of  Ireland  used  to  be  Inaugurated,  had  been  brought  over  to 

A.rgyle  when  the  colony  was  founded.     After  the  victory  by  which 

Kenneth  McAlpine,  in  843,  finally  subdued  the  Picts,  it  was  removed  Irish  Warrior. 

by  him  from  Argj-le  to  Scone,  where  it  remained  till  the  time  of  (^»'<wi  a  m  Century  MS. 

.  preserved  m  Gennany.) 

Edward  I.     It  was  carried  off  by  his  order,  enclosed  in  a  stately 

chair,  and  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey.      Thus  it  became,  and  still  remains,  the  coronation 

chair  of  the  English  sovereigns. 

Proximity  of  Anglo-Saxon  Northumbria  to  Irish  Civilization.— In  the  time 

of  Kenneth  McAlpine,  Caledonia  did  not  reach  south  of  the  Forth.    The  Lowlands  of  Scotland 

were  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  as  settled  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  at  the 

time  they  invaded  England.      This  close  proximity  of  the  north  boundary  of  Northiimbria  to 


318  IRELAND. 

the  original  Irish  settlements  in  Scotland,  enables  us  to  understand  the  missionary  influence 
of  lona  in  the  7th  century,  when  Aidan,  the  monk  of  lona,  became  the  Apostle  of  the  An^lo- 
Saxons  of  Northumbria  at  Lindisfarne. 

Cession  of  the  Iiowlands  to  "  Scot  "-land.— A  century  and  over  after  Kennetli 
Mc Alpine,  the  Lowlands,  i.  e.,  the  territory  between  Forth  and  Tweed,  were  ceded  to  Scotland 
by  the  great  English  statesman,  Dnnstan.  At  this  time  the  old  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  were 
united  under  the  successors  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  in  the  difficulty  of  protecting  North  Eng- 
land from  the  Danes,  Duustan  wished  to  save  the  rest  of  Northumbria  by  building  up  a  power 
in  the  North  against  them.  The  union  of  this  territory  between  Tweed  and  Forth  with  the 
earlier  possessions  of  the  "  Scottish  "  kings  was  facilitated  and  cemented  by  the  missionary 
and  civilizing  influences  of  lona  and  of  Lindisfanie.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  the  English  Edgar 
(958-975)  that  the  Tweed  thus  became  the  boundary  between  Scotland  and  England,  which  has 
ever  since  remained. 

Thus,  an  Irish  line  of  Princes,  assisted  by  the  general  ascendency  of  Irish  Christianity 
and  civilization  over  North  Britain,  united  the  territories  which  became  Scotland.  But  the 
name  Scotland  was  not  yet  used.  This  portion  of  North  Britain  had  been  known  as  Caledonia 
or  Alba.    Alba  (Albania,  Albany)  was  the  name  used  for  it  by  the  Scoti  of  Ireland. 

The  word  Scotia  (or  Scotland),  as  applied  to  Caledonia,  appears  first  with  the  Irish 
writer  Marianus  Scotus  of  the  11th  century.  The  use  first  became  general  in  the  12th  century. 
Before  the  12th  century  the  terms  Scoti  and  Scotia  were  used  indifferently  for  the  Irish,  whether 
in  Ireland  or  Scotland.  The  latter  were  distinguished  from  the  former  as  the  Scots  of  Albania. 
Some  authors  speak  of  the  two  Scotias,  Ireland  being  Scotiva  Major.  So  utterly,  however,  was 
the  memory  of  the  original  use  of  the  words  Scotia  and  Scoti  at  last  forgotten  that  in  the  early 
16th  century  some  Irish  monks,  in  partial  possession  of  the  old  "  Scottish"  monastery  at  Re- 
gensburg,  in  Germany,  were  expelled  a.s  intruders.  Their  place  was  given  to  Scotchmen,  and 
the  expelled  monks  were  accused  of  having  forged,  in  the  annals  of  the  monastery,  the  words 
Scotia  Major  to  designate  Ireland.— (Burton's  History  op  Scotland,  p.  202,  Vol.  I.) 

The  "Poems  of  Ossian"were  published  in  the  I8th  century  by  the  Scotch  author 
McPherson  as  a  rediscovered  ancient  Scotch  poem.  Investigation  into  the  auihcnticity  of  this 
work  has  shown  that,  although  modern  in  its  combination,  it  is  based  on  old  fables  and  poems 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands  which  had  been  transplanted  from  Ireland  in  the  times  of  the  Irish 
settlement. 

The  latest  and  most  extended  history  of  Scotland  is  that  of  Mr  Burton,  "  Historiographer 
Royal  for  Scotland."  On  the  subject  of  the  Irish  in  Scotland  he  says,  p  2M,  Vol.  I.  r  "We 
cannot  thoroughly  understand  the  ascendency  so  acquired  by  kings  of  the  Dalriadic  race  with- 
oifct  realizing  to  ourselves,  what  is  not  to  be  done  at  once,  the  high  standard  of  civilization 
which  separated  the  'Scots'  of  Ireland  and  Dalriada  from  the  other  nations  inhabiting  the 
British  Isles,  It  was  as  yet  a  waxing  civilization,  bringing  with  It  continual  Increase  of  polit- 
ical influence We  have  no  conspicuous  memorials  of  such  a  social  condition,  such  as  the 

great  buildings  left  by  the  Romans  and  the  Normans.  Celtic  civilization  took  another  and 
subtler  shape.  It  came  out  emphatically  in  dress  and  decoration.  Among  Irish  relics  there 
are  many  golden  ornaments  of  exquisitely  beautiftil  and  symmetrical  pattern.  Of  the  trinkets, 
too,  made  of  jet,  glass,  ornamental  stone,  and  enamel  the  remnants  found  in  later  time  [in 
Scotland]  belong  in  so  large  a  proportion  to  Ireland  as  to  point  to  tlie  centre  of  fashion,  whence 
they  radiated,  as  being  there.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  good  deal  of  what  may  be  called 
elegant  luxury.  The  great  folks,  for  instance,  lay  or  ecclesiastic,  had  their  carriages  and  their 
yachts.    Especially  the  shrines,  the  ecclesiastical  vestments,  and  all  the  decorations  devoted  to 


THIHD    PERIOD.  310 

religion,  were  rich  and  beautiful.  They  had  manuscripts  beautifully  written  and  adorned,  which 
were  encased  in  costly  and  finely-worked  bindin^js.  It  is  to  this  honor  done  to  sacred  books, 
of  which  the  finest  specimens  belong  to  Ireland,  that  we  may  attribute  the  medieva^  passion 
for  rich  bindings.  The  testimonies  to  the  high  social  position  of  the  Celts  among  the  tribes 
of  the  British  isles  are  taken  by  induction  from  the  examination  of  such  memorials  as  have 
turned  up  in  recent  times.  We  know  from  old  authorities  that  these  Celts  were  honored  by 
their  neighbors  as  a  lettered  people.  By  the  '  Scots '  writers,  whether  of  Dalriada  or  Ireland, 
the  Saxons  are  spoken  of,  without  any  aflfectation,  as  barbarians,  just  as  they  would  have  been 
spoken  of  by  the  Komans.  Prom  the  other  side,  even  in  Bede's  [Anglo-Saxon]  narrative,  the 
sense  of  inferiority  is  distinctly  apparent." 

Map  Study.— See  modern  maps  for  Antrim,  Armagh,  Lismore,  Clonmacnoise,  Bangor, 
Argyle,  Ross,  Perth,  the  Hebrides,  lona,  the  Grampians,  Kent,  Northumbria,  Durham,  York, 
Leinster,  Ulster,  Franche-Comte,  Lake  of  Constance,  Kildare,  the  Forth,  the  Tweed. 


THIRD    PERIOD.     NINTH    AND   TENTH    CENTURIES. 
FROM  794  TO  1014. 

The  Danish  Invasions. — For  the  period  of  Irish  history  after 
St.  Patrick's  mission  in  the  5th  century,  down  to  the  9th  century, 
the  details  of  royal  genealogies,  dates,  and  deeds  of  the  Irish  kings, 
are  sufficiently  distinct.  But  interest  attaches  to  these  features  of 
history  only  when  related  at  length,  and  attention  to  such  matters 
in  brief  histories  is  apt  to  obscure  the  salient  and  important  points. 

In  the  account  given  of  the  Irish  learning  and  its  influence  over 
Europe,  it  will  be  noticed  that  few  of  the  distinguished  names  of 
Irish  residents  on  the  Continent  dated  later  than  the  9th  century. 
At  this  time  Continental  Europe,  disciplined  and  civilized,  as  far 
as  then  possible,  by  the  efforts  of  the  Church,  was  reorganized  by 
Charlemagne,  and  his  work  was  carried  on  by  the  German  emperors 
of  the  10th  century.  But  Ireland  was  now  destined  to  make  the 
experience  in  a  less  degree  of  the  terrible  effects  of  the  foreign  inva- 
sions which  had  scourged  the  rest  of  Europe  in  the  5th  and  6th 
centuries. 

These  later  invasions  were  simply  a  continuation  of  the  earlier 
Germanic  invasions,  but  were  carried  on  by  sea  and  by  tribes  of  Ger- 
manic race  living  to  the  north  of  Germany,  still  Pagan,  cruel  and 
bloodthirsty. 


320 


IRELAND. 


The  Angles  and  Saxons  who  settled  in  England  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury were  Germanic 
tribes  from  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  and  the 
Peninsula  of  Den- 
mark. There  was  no 
real  distinction  of 
blood  or  nature  be- 
tween them  and  the 
Danes  proper,  or  the 
Northmen  of  the 
Scandinavian  penin- 
sula, excepting  that 
the  latter  had  a  more 
imaginative  and  po- 
etic temperament,  a 
more  chivalric  charac- 
ter. 

The  incursions  by 
which  Ireland  was 
devastated  began  in 
794,  when  the  North- 
men  landed    on    the 

A  Landing  of  the  Danes.  j^j^    ^^    Rathliu,    and 

lasted  till  1014,  when  Brian  Boru  defeated  them  on  the  field  of 
Clontarf. 


During"  the  intermediate  time  they  also  ravaged  the  coasts  of  Prance  and  overran 
England.  By  the  settlement  in  Normandy,  hence  named,  of  a  hand  of  Northmen  under  RoUo, 
in  911,  France  was  protected  from  the  further  ravages  of  their  brethren  (p.  178).  The  general 
result  of  these  Danish  invasions  was  the  civilizing  and  Christianizing  of  the  Scandinavian 
nations,  by  contact  with  the  people  whom  they  ravaged  and  persecuted.  The  Christianizing 
process  first  became  general  after  1000  a.  d.  Meantime,  England's  struggle  out  of  Anglo-Saxon 
barbarism  was  nlpi^ed  in  the  bud.  Ireland's  more  advanced  civilization  suffered  less?,  but 
suffered  greatly. 

The  monastic  foundations,  as  seats  of  wealth  and  prosperity,  offered  the  most  tempting 
prizes  to  the  piratical  expeditions,  and  they  were  the  most  accessible  to  them  in  location. 


THIRD    PERIOD.  321 

Armagh  was  plundered  seventeen  times  during  the  two  hundred  years  of  war.     By  constant 
war  and  suffering  the  morals  of  the  nation  were  impaired  and  weakened. 

The  landings  of  the  Northmen  were  made  with  fleets  counting  as  high  as  120 
vessels.  The  largest  ships  carried  from  100  to  120  men,  and  expeditions  of  6,000  or  7,000 
warriors  were  not  unusual.  The  peculiar  geography  of  Ireland,  with  rivers  opening  out  into 
inland  lakes,  admitted  the  Danes  to  the  very  heart  of  the  country  without  obliging  them  to 
abandon  their  ships.  The  necessity  of  meeting  the  Danes  in  all  quarters,  without  waiting  for 
assistance  from  a  distant  royal  power,  tended  to  weaken  the  royal  authority.  The  period  of  the 
invasions  is  therefore  also  filled  with  intestine  feuds,  and  as  the  Danes  became  settled  on  the 
coasts  they  are  often  found  in  alliance  with  the  local  Irish  princes. 

Five  important  towns  were  ultimately  held  and  peopled  by 
the  Danes— Dublin,  Wexford,  Waterford,  Cork,  and  Limerick. 
Meantime,  during  the  reign  of  Flan  '*  of  the  Shannon/'  about  900 
A.  I).,  the  predatory  incursions  diminished  under  the  stem  rule  of 
the  Norwegian  king,  Harold  the  Fair-haired.  .  In  the  middle  of  the 
10th  century,  occurred,  in  Dublin,  the  first  conversions  of  the 
Danes. 

In  the  third  quarter  of  this  century  the  brothers  Mahon 
and  Brian  opposed  the  Danes  in  Munster.  They  were  resisted  in 
Meath  by  Melaghlin  (or  Malachy),  after  979  Malachy  II.  At  the 
time  of  the  accession  of  Malachy  II.,  Brian  Born,  trained  up  to 
deeds  of  bravery  under  his  brother  Mahon,  had  succeeded  this 
brother  as  King  of  Munster  (978).  The  jealousy  between  North 
and  South  was  apparent  in  the  contentions  of  these  two  kings; 
Brian  really  the  more  powerful  and  able,  Malachy  II.  with  the  legal 
title. 

Brian  Boru  King  of  Ireland.— In  1001  Malachy  finally  yielded 
his  title  to  Brian,  and  the  latter  was  acknowledged,  not  only  by  the 
Irish  princes  in  general,  but  also  by  the  Danes  of  the  coast  cities,  as 
king  of  the  whole  Island. 

Just  at  the  time  when  the  Danes  under  Canute  established  them- 
selves as  ruling  power  in  England,  a  last  great  eflPort  was  made  to 
subdue  Ireland.  An  immense  armament  was  gathered  from  the 
Scandinavian  countries,  and  from  the  Orkneys  and  Hebrides,  then 
under  Northman  rule.  This  army  was  defeated  by  Brian  Boru,  in 
1014,  on  the  field  of  Clontarf,  near  Dublin.     Brian  fell  in  the  battle 


3^^  IRELAND. 

with  his  son  and  grandson.  This  was  practically  the  end  of  the  in- 
vasions, which  reach  a  few  years  on  either  side  of  the  9th  and  10th 
centuries  (794-1014).  The  Danes  of  the  coast  towns  mentioned  had 
already  mixed  and  intermarried  with  the  Irish.  They  were  soon 
thoroughly  amalgamated  with  them. 

The  reign  of  Brian  Boru  is  celebrated  by  the  annalists  for  its  vigor  and  good  order. 
In  his  palace  at  Kinkora  he  practiced  a  truly  royal  hospitality.  The  interests  of  the  Church 
were  carefully  regarded  in  the  matter  of  endowments.  Roads,  bridges,  and  buildings  of  public 
utility  were  constructed  or  repaired.  The  preservation  of  the  public  peace,  remarkable  in  a 
time  following  the  long  devastations  of  foreign  war,  was  strictly  enforced.  But  a  strongly 
organized  monarchy  was  not  in  the  genius  of  the  Irish  people.  It  had  not  existed  before  Brian, 
and  it  ended  with  him. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  Irish  society  was  its  development  of  the  family 
tie  into  a  governmental  and  social  system.  The  consequent  existence,  side  by  side,  of  a  num- 
ber of  family  chiefs— heads  of  the  great  clans  and  their  subdivisions— of  really  equal  position 
and  of  locally  separated  territorial  rule,  made  the  office  of  over-king  or  "  Ard-righ"  rather  one 
of  honor  than  of  actual  royal  power. 

The  national  custom  of  "  tanistry,"  i.  e.,  nominating  the  king's  successor,  "Roy- 
damna,"  in  his  life-time,  was  rather  a  result  than  a  cause  of  the  loose  power  of  the  chief  Irish 
king.  It  is  to  be  noted  about  the  frequent  contests  of  Irish  rival  kings  and  chieftains,  that 
they  did  not  disturb  the  social  fabric,  but  grew  out  of  its  peculiar  character.  If  the  system  of 
Irijih  monarchy  was  a  complex  and  unsettled  one,  it  had  one  grand  redeeming  feature.  The 
relations  of  the  subjects  to  these  petty  kings  were  never  those  of  oppression,  of  extortion,  or  of 
subjection.  They  were  relations  of  affection,  devotion,  kUulred  blood  and  patriarchal  equality. 
Therefore,  in  the  disputes  and  wars  of  the  rivals  we  do  not  find  personal  aggrandizement  or 
personal  greed  as  a  motive  power. 

Map  Study.— See  modem  maps  for  Island  of  Ratblin,  Dublin,  Wexford,  Watcrford,  Cork, 
Limerick,  Munster,  Meath,  the  Orkneys. 


FOURTH  PERIOD.     "KINGS  WITH    OPPOSITION." 
FROM  1014  TO  1170. 

The  Century  and  a  half  after  Brian  Boru  is  called  the  time 
of  kings  **  with  opposition."  Tlie  five  provinces  of  Ulster,  Meath, 
Leinster,  Munster,  and  Connaught  now  appear  as  five  nearly  equally 
balanced  local  principalities.  The  exaction  by  the  nominal  king  of 
any  decided  recognition  was  frequently  opposed  by  the  local  jealousy 
of  the  rival  provinces. 

To  these  provinces  correspond  the  great  families  of  the 


FIFTH    PERIOD.  323 

O'Neils  in  Ulster,  the  O'Melagblins  in  Meath,  the  McMurroghs  in 
Lehister,  the  O'Briens  in  Munster,  and  the  O'Connors  in  Connaught. 
Such  family  names  now  replace  the  earlier  tribal  and  clan  designa- 
tions. Their  general  use  dates  from  the  time  of  Brian  Boru,  who 
recommended  or  enforced  it.  Tiie  O'Briens  were  the  descendants  of 
Brian.  The  O'Neils  correspond  to  the  Nials.  The  distinction  between 
clan  and  family  now  made  indicates  a  more  closely  organized  society. 
Norman  Conquest  of  England.— The  11th  century,  begin- 
ning in  Ireland  with  the  victory  and  death  of  Brian  Boru,  opened 
in  England  with  the  establishment  of  the  Dane  Canute  on  the  Eng- 
lish throne.  He  was  followed  by  his  two  sons.  Then  came  the  reign 
of  the  Saxon  Edward  the  Confessor,  followed  by  his  minister  Harold. 
In  1066  took  place  the  landing  of  the  French  Northmen  in  Eng- 
land and  the  Korman  conquest  of  that  country  (p.  181). 


FIFTH    PERIOD.     NORMAN    INVASION    AND    SETTLEMENTS. 
FROM  1170  TO  1509. 

Norman  Settlements. — It  was  in  the  natural  course  of  events 
that  a  Norman  conquest  of  Ireland  should  be  attempted  after  that 
of  England.  The  Normans  had  not  forgotten  the  two  centuries  of 
war  which  their  Northman  relations  had  waged  with  Ireland,  only 
closed  fifty  years  before  the  English  conquest.  From  the  same 
natural  association  of  the  Normans  in  England  with  their  own 
Northman  persecutors,  the  Irish  were  naturally  sympathizers  with  the 
Anglo-Saxons  and  with  the  Welsh.  An  Irish  force  had  assisted  the 
brothers  of  Harold,  Edwin  and  Morcar,  in  their  continued  resistance 
to  William  the  Conqueror  after  Harold's  death,  had  threatened  Bris- 
tol and  landed  in  Devonshire.  This  the  Normans  had  not  forgotten, 
and  they  knew  that  Ireland,  by  its  sympathies,  had  become  a  resort 
for  refugees  from  England. 

Since  the  time  of  the  Danes  in  Ireland,  complaints  had  also 
reached  Rome  of  disorders  and  laxness  of   discipline  in  the  Irish 


su 


IRELAND. 


Church.  The  English  king  Henrj  11.  is  said  to  have  sought  and 
obtained,  in  1155,  a  commission  from  Pope  Adrian  IV.  for  the 
reformation  of  these  abuses  ;  but  the  Norman  invasion  of  Ireland 
was  thirteen  years  later  and  had  no  reference  to  such  a  commission.* 
Cause  of  the  Norman  Invasion. — Dermid  McMurrogh, 
Prince  of  Leinster,  had  carried  off  Devorghoil,  wife  of  O'Ruarc, 

Prince  of  Breffni  (Lei- 
trim).  For  this  crime 
he  was  deprived  of  his 
kingdom  of  Leinster 
and  of  his  patrimony, 
by  Roderick  O'Connor, 
titular  king  of  Ireland, 
king  of  Con  naught,  and 
ally  and  friend  of 
O'Ruarc.  The  abduc- 
tion of  O'Ruarc's  wife 
was  in  1153,  when  the 
father  of  Roderick  had 
incurred  the  hatred  ot 
Dermid  by  compelling 
him  to  restore  the  lady 
to  her  husband.  Der- 
mid was  not  expatriated  till  1168,  when  he  refused  submission  to 
the  new  king,  Roderick. 

In  this  year  he  resorted  for  assistance  to  Henry  II.  in  Acqui- 
taine,  and  received  from  him  a  patent  authorizing  enlistments.  The 
natural  starting  point  for  an  expedition  against  Ireland  was  Wales, 
and  from  the  Anglo-Normans  of  this  country  Dermid  sought  his 
assistants.  Chief  among  them  was  Richard  Strongbow,  Earl  of 
Pembroke  ;  assisted  by  Robert  Fitzstephen,  Raymond  le  Gros,  and 

♦  Its  existence  has  been  frequently  questioned  by  Irish  historians.  See,  on  its  presumed 
forgery  a  communication  from  the  Eight  Rev.  P.  H.  Moran,  D  D.  Bishop  of  Ossoiy  (now  Car- 
dinal, Archbishop  of  Sidney)  in  the  "N.  Y.  Tablet"  of  Dec.  7, 1872.  This  article  is  by  a 
Bcholar  whose  researches  and  opportunities  give  his  opinion  more  than  ordinary  weight. 


Gate  of  Cong  Abbey.    Residence  of  Roderick  O'Connor. 


FIFTH    PERIOD.  325 

Maurice  Fitzgerald,  with  other  Norman  knights,  their  men  at  arms, 
bowmen,  and  Welsh  and  Flemish  mercenaries.  The  Flemings  were 
settlers  in  Wales. 

In  1168  Dermid  returned  to  Leinster  with  a  party  of  Flemings. 
He  made  no  claim  to  the  restoration  of  his  kingdom  of  Leinster, 
and  after  some  opposition,  on  delivery  of  hostages  and  payment  of 
fine,  was  allowed  to  resume  his  patrimony. 

In  May,  1169,  Fitzstephen  landed  in  the  Bay  of  Bannow, 
near  Wexford,  with  a  small  force  of  Anglo-Normans.  Wexford 
was  besieged  and  taken.  Eoderick  summoned  a  national  muster  of 
the  Irish  at  the  hill  ot  Tara.  This  was  well  attended.  The  force 
proceeded  to  Dublin,  but  finding  no  attack  threatened,  the  army 
partially  disbanded. 

By  the  treaty  of  Ferns,  Dermid  agreed  to  do  homage  to  Rod- 
erick, and  to  take  no  more  Normans  into  his  service.  But  in  the 
same  winter,  always  secretly  intriguing  to  recover  his  kingdom  of 
Leinster,  he  welcomed  the  arrival  at  Wexford  of  Maurice  Fitzgerald 
with  an  additional  force,  and  employed  it  in  threatening  Dublin. 

In  May,  1170,  Raymond  le  Gros  sailed  into  the  harbor  of 
Waterford  and  fortified  himself  near  the  town.  In  August,  1170, 
Richard  Strongbow  joined  him  with  the  largest  force  yet  sent  over. 
Waterford  was  taken,  and  Strongbow  married,  by  previous  agree- 
ment, Eva  McMurrogh,  with  the  dowry  of  the  kingdom  of 
Leinster,  after  Dermid's  death.    This  death  took  place  in  1171. 

Meantime,  Dublin  had  been  besieged  and  taken,  while  Roderick, 
who  had  done  his  best  to  relieve  the  city,  retired  into  Oonnaught. 

In  October,  1171,  Henry  II.  landed,  near  Waterford,  with 
500  knights  and  4,000  men  at  arms  from  a  fleet  of  400  transports. 
Garrisons  were  placed  in  Limerick  and  Cork,  and  many  chiefs  of 
Munster  and  Leinster  made  feudal  submission.  The  chiefs  of 
Ulster  uniformly  refused  submission.  Henry  spent  Christmas  at 
Dublin,  then  held  a  synod  at  Cashel  for  the  reformation  of  the 
Church  abuses,  staying  altogether  seven  months  in  the  island.  The 
persecutor  of  Becket  probably  did  not  materially  transform  the 


336 


IRELAND. 


Irish  Church,  but  in  a  military  sense  Henry  did  not  take  an 
actively  aggressive  attitude  in  Ireland.  It  was  at  the  moment  of  his 
disgrace  with  the  See  of  Rome  for  Becket's  murder  (see  English 


The  Rock  of  Cashel. 


history)  that  he  undertook  the  Irish  expedition,  and  probably  to 
gain  favor  with  the  commissioners  sent  to  inquire  into  Becket's 
murder  that  he  held  the  synod  of  Cashel. 


Extent  of  Norman  power  in  Ireland.— The  weak  organism  of  Irish  monarchy 
already  explained  made  the  settlement  of  the  first  Anglo-Norman  invaders  an  apparently  easy 
matter.  Sometimes  by  marriage,  as  in  the  case  of  Richard  Strongbow ;  sometimes  in  the 
service  of  contending  Irish  princes ;  oftener  by  violence,  they  made  themselves  possessions 
and  built  castles  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  In  Munster,  Leinstcr,  and  Meath,  they  were 
most  numerous  ;  in  Connaught  less  numerous  ;  in  Ulster  there  were  scarcely  any.  The  Irish 
were  opposed,  by  national  habit,  to  the  use  of  armor  and  of  castles,  whereas  the  Normans 
were  the  military  experts  of  all  Europe.  Notwithstanding  this  apparent  superiority,  the 
history  of  the  Anglo-Normans  in  Ireland  is  that  of  a  constantly  decreasing  power.  They  were 
never  themselves  masters  of  the  country,  and  their  own  feudal  tendency  to  oppose  the  author- 
ity of  the  English  monarchs  prevented  this  authority  of  the  English  kings  from  being  in  any 
way  established. 

One  cause  preventing  the  Anglo-Norman  conquest  of  Ireland  was  a  traditional 
jealousy  between  the  English  kings  and  their  Norman-Irish  nobles.  Another  was  the  thor- 
oughly gallant  and  spirited  Irish  military  opposition— not  the  less  effective  because  it  was  not 
combined  to  win  or  lose  all  in  a  single  battle,  as  with  Harold  and  William  the  Conqueror.  The 
most  decided  influence  was  exerted  by  the  amalgamation  of  the  Normans  with  the  native  pop< 


FIFTH    PERIOD. 


327 


Illation.  The  former,  by  intermarriage  and  gradual  adoption  of  Irish  manners,  language,  and 
fashions,  became  "  more  Irish  than  the  Irish." 

Extent  of  the  "Pale."— Three  hundred  years  after  the  Anglo-Normans  landed  in  Ire- 
land, the  territory  under  English  law,  known  as  the  "  English  Pale,"  was  confined  to  the  coun- 
try immediately  surrounding  Dublin.  The  English  "  Pale,"  in  its  earlier  and  widest  extent, 
took  in  about  one-half  of  the  island,  by  a  line  drawn  diagonally  from  northeast  to  southwest 
through  the  centre. 

Tlie  history  of  Ireland,  from  Henry  II.  to  Henry  VIII.— i.  e.,  from  1170  to  1509— 
is  the  process  of  the  absorption  or  re-conquest  of  the  Anglo-Nonnans.  After  Henry  II.  we 
pass  through  the  reigns  of  the  English  kings  Richard  I.,  John,  and  Henry  III.,  to  the  time  of 
Edward  I.,  about  1300,  without  finding  either  intervention  or  presence  of  these  kings  in  Ire- 
land, two  rapid  and  resultless  visits  of  John  excepted.  These  were  made  to  overawe  insubor- 
dinate Norman  barons.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  and  at  the  time  of  his  Scotch  wars,  after 
1290,  the  Norman-Irish  barons,  chief  among  them  the  "  Red  Earl  "  of  Uls^tcr,  obeyed  his  sum- 
mons to  feudal  service  in  Scotland.  Meantime  the  power  and  oflice  of  "  Ardrigh"  were  gen- 
erally maintained  west  of  the  Shannon  and  in  Ulster. 

(Henry  II.  had  recognized  the  sovereignty  of  Roderick  over  all  territories  not  actually  in 
possession  of  his  own  subjects,  accepting  Roderick's  feudal  submist  ion  in  return.  Cathal 
O'Connor,  Irish  king  of  Connaught  and  Ardrigh,  co-operated  with  John  in  1210.  Feidlim 
O'Connor  of  Connaught  was  on  friendly  terms  with  Henry  III.,  and  attended  his  war  in 


Kilkenny  Castle,  Seat  of  the  Ormonds. 


Wales.  In  Meath,  Leinster,  and  Munster  the  power  of  Irish  and  Norman-Irish  chiefs  was 
about  equally  balanced.  In  the  time  of  Edward  I.  the  "  Red  Earl,"  Richard  do  Burgh, 
descended  on  one  side  from  the  granddaughter  of  Roderick  O'Connor,  was  the  most  powerful 
of  the  Norman-Irish,  and  his  rule  was  recognized  in  Connaught  and  Ulster.  His  descendants 
adopted  the  Irish  clan  system  and  the  name  of  Mac  Willi  am.) 

Edward  II.  carried  on  war  with  Scotland  till  the  English  defeat  of  Bannockbum 
made  Robert  Bruce  secure  in  this  country.    In  consequence  of  this  Scotch  victory  (1314)  the 


328  IRELAND. 

leading  Irish  chieftain,  Donald  O'Neil  of  Ulster,  called  on  David  Bruce,  brother  of  Robert, 
to  make  Ireland  an  independent  kingdom,  and  abdicated  in  his  favor  the  title  of  Ai*d- 
righ. 

The  campaigns  of  the  Bruces  in  Ireland  carried  them  over  the  island,  but  the  pro- 
posed kingdom  was  shattered  on  the  opposition  of  the  Munster  Irish  and  the  old  jealousy  of 
North  and  South.  David  Bruce  was  defeated  and  killed  by  a  Norman  force  at  Faughard,  near 
Dundalk.    His  tombstone  still  stands  on  the  site  of  the  battle. 

The  Desmonds  and  Ormonds.— Bruce's  own  Scotch  family  was  of  Norman  extraction. 
Many  Norman-Irish  barons  had  sympathized  with  his  ambition  and  assisted  it.  From  the 
confiscations  which  thus  followed  their  participation  in  his  campaign  dates  the  great  impor 
tance  of  the  two  branches  of  the  family  descended  from  Maurice  Fitzgerald  (hence  called  Ger- 
aldines),  the  Geraldine  Earldoms  of  Desmond  and  Kildare,  and  of  the  family  of  the 
Butlers,  now  raised  to  the  Earldom  of  Ormond.  (Theobald  Walter,  a  follower  of  Henry  H., 
was  raised  to  the  feudal  dignity  of  his  chief  "  butler"  in  Ireland.) 

Kilkenny  was  the  seat  of  the  Ormonds,  and  capital  of  the  Pale,  and  the  Ormonds  became 
the  representatives  of  its  English  tendencies,  although  themselves  much  Hibemicized. 

The  Principality  of  Desmond  comprised  parts  of  the  counties  of  Waterford  and  Tip- 
perary,  with  all  Cork  and  Kerry.  The  chief  seat  of  the  Desmonds  was  Kilmallock  (now  called 
from  its  ruins  the  "  Balbek  of  Ireland  ").  They  became  the  great  representatives  of  the  Irish 
Normans  as  opposed  to  the  Norman-Irish  Ormonds. 

Thus,  after  the  time  of  David  Bruce  (1318)  till  Henry  VII.  (after  1485)  the  domi- 
nant family  of  Munster  was  the  Hibemicized  Desmond  branch  of  the  Geraldines.  Connaught 
was  thoroughly  Irish.  Ulster  was  thoroughly  Irish.  Meantime,  the  limits  of  the  Pale  were 
steadily  receding,  and  in  the  time  of  Eihvard  III.  (1327-1372)  his  son  Lionel,  to  whom  had 
passed  by  marriage  the  nominal  title  of  Earl  of  Ulster,  was  sent  over  to  assert  the  English  in- 
terests. He  was  defeated  by  an  O'Brien  of  Munster,  but  his  name  of  "  Clarence  "  originated 
in  his  fictitious  victories  in  County  Clare.  From  the  efforts  of  Clarence  date  the  famous 
Statutes  of  Kilkenny,  1367, 

The  Statutes  of  Kilkenny  enacted  that  marriage,  nurture  of  infants,  or  •'gossipred" 
with  the  Irish  (i.  e.  fostering),  or  submission  to  Irish  Brehon  law,  should  be  deemed  high 
treason.  Any  man  of  English  race  tr.king  an  Irish  name,  using  the  Irish  language,  or  adopting 
Irish  customs,  was  to  forfeit  goods  and  chattels  until  he  gave  security  that  he  would  conform 
to  English  manners.  It  was  declared  highly  penal  to  entertain  an  Irish  bard,  minstrel,  or 
story-teller,  or  even  to  admit  an  Irish  horse  to  graze  on  the  pasture  of  an  Englishman,  These 
statutes  were  never  fenforced  beyond  the  County  of  Kilkenny,  and  were  enforced  imperfectly 
there.  They  are  best  understood  by  parallel  with  old  sumptuary  laws  against  extravagance  of 
food  or  dress.  Such  laws  really  exhibit  the  general  prevalence  of  the  customs  they  strove  to 
reform,  and  are  thus  the  most  perfect  illustration  of  their  own  futility. 

English  jealousy.— These  statutes  have,  notwithstanding,  a  deep  significance  for  the 
future  course  of  Irish  history.  They  show  the  jealousy  constantly  exhibited  by  native  English 
governors  and  administrators  for  the  English-born  natives  of  Irish  soil.  They  show  the  inca- 
pacity of  English  nature  to  comprehend  the  virtues  of  a  society  different  from  their  own,  and 
the  intolerant  spirit  of  England  towards  Ireland.  Notwithstanding  the  large  numbers  of 
Anglo-Norman  settlers,  it  appears  that  about  1500,  and  before  the  "  Reformation,"  Ireland 
was  essentially  a  homogeneous  country.  The  "  conquests"  subsequent  to  1500  differ  from  all 
earlier  ones  in  really  carrying  into  efifect  the  spirit  which  the  Statutes  of  Kilkenny  in  their  own 
time  but  impotently  breathed. 


FIFTH    PERIOD.  329 

Through  the  14th  century  the  cutting  down  of  the  limito 
of  the  English  Pale  steadily  continued.  The  great  liberator  of 
Leinster  was  Art  McMurrogh,  and  his  power  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  campaigns  of  Richard  IL,  1377-1399  (successor  and  grandson 
of  Edward  III.).  These  campaigns  were  undertaken  on  account  of 
the  tribute  paid  by  the  English  to  McMurrogh  and  other  Irish 
lords  for  right  of  way  through  their  territories,  which  had  become  a 
tax  on  the  English  treasury. 

In  1394  Richard  II.  landed  at  Waterford  with  an  army  of 
30,000  archers  and  4,000  men  at  arms.  In  order  to  reach  Kilkenny 
he  unfurled  the  banner  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  as  more  popular 
with  the  people  than  the  Norman  leopards.  But  he  could  not 
march  beyond  Carlow.  The  way  was  blocked  by  McMurrogh,  and 
his  opposition  obliged  the  king  to  turn  aside  and  reach  Dublin  by 
the  sea-shore. 

A  second  expedition  of  24,000  men  was  equally  unsuccess- 
ful in  1398,  in  penetrating  into  Leinster  beyond  the  coast  territories. 
For  the  expenses  of  the  second  expedition,  Richard  had  confiscated 
the  estates  of  Jolm  of  Gaunt,  his  uncle,  just  deceased.  This  was 
the  cause  of  the  return  to  England  of  the  banished  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster, son  of  John  of  Gaunt.  Richard  was  put  to  death,  and  the 
House  of  Lancaster  came  to  the  English  throne  with  Henry  IV.  in 
1399. 

Henry  IV.,  1399-1413,  was  absorbed  with  trouble  at  home.  Henry  V.,  1413-1422,  was  kept 
busy  by  his  French  wars.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  1422-1471,  and  Edward  IV.,  1471-1483, 
the  Wars  of  the  Eoses  left  Ireland  undisturbed. 

At  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.,  in  1485,  such  was  the 
practical  independence  of  Ireland  that  the  8th  (Geraldine)  Earl  of 
Kildare,  then  Lord  Deputy,  was  not  removed  by  Henry,  although 
he  took  the  part  of  Lambert  Simnel,  a  pretender  to  the  English 
crown.  The  Geraldines  of  Kildare,  under  the  leadership  of  this 
earl,  were  now  the  ruling  family  of  Ireland,  being  united  by  inter- 
marriage with  the  Irish  chiefs  of  Ulster  and  Leinster.    The  8th 


330 


IRELAND. 


Earl  of  Kildare  continued  in  office  till  1513,  the  fourth  year  of 
Henry  VTII.,  king  of  England,  after  1509. 

Map    Study.— Sec  modern  map  for  Connaught,  Leitrim,  Wexford,  Ferns,  Waterford, 
Limerick,  Cork,  The  Shannon,  Dundalk,  Kilkenny,  Tipperary,  Kerry,  Kilmallock,  Carlow. 


SIXTH  PERIOD:    1509-1690.     FROM   HENRY  VIM.  TO  THE 
BATTLE  OF  THE  BOYNE. 


In  the  accounts  given  of  the  Rise  of  Monarchy,  as  opposed  to  Feudalism,  some 

explanations  have  been  given 
of  the  general  causes  contribu- 
ting to  raise  up  a  system  of 
absolute  monarchies  in  the  16th 
century  (p.  208). 

The  policy  pursued  by  any 
individual  monarch  was  often, 
perhaps  generally,  inspired  by 
personal  ambition  ;  but  certain 
interests  of  the  people  contrib- 
uted to  his  success.  These  in- 
terests were  in  general  those  of 
stable  society,  as  opposed  to 
one  of  feuds  and  petty  warfare. 
But  the  rise  of  a  strong  mon- 
archy in  England  was  attended 
with  fatal  consequences  for  the 
adjoining  island,  not  only  be- 
cause of  the  contemporary  Prot- 
estant revolution  in  England, 
but  also  because  the  English 
laws  of  land-tenure  and  succes- 
sion were  diametrically  opposed 
to  those  of  the  race  which 
religious  intolerance  and  mercenary  greed  now  combined  to  persecute. 

During*  the  reigrn  of  Henry  VIII.  the  approaching  overthrow  of  Irish  institutions 
was  not  yet  apparent.  To  the  more  peaceful  society  which  a  strong  monarchy  seemed  to 
promise,  Irish  public  sentiment  was  not  opposed.  The  kings  were  the  natural  antagonists  of 
powerful  territorial  nobles,  and  the  fact  that  an  almost  independent  country  in  1485,  the  date  of 
Henry  VII. 's  accession,  generally  accepted  Henry  VIII.  as  king  in  1541  is  explained  by  the 
policy  pursued  in  the  intervening  time. 

This  policy  was  to  break  the  i)owcr  of  the  great  lords  in  Ireland  by  favoring  the  small 
ones,  and  thus  we  have  the  singular  spectacle  of  an  English  policy  which  for  the  time  being 
favored  and  supported  the  interests  of  the  small  Irish  chiefs  against  th(?  great  nobles  in  general 
and  the  Geraldines  in  particular.    The  9th  (Geraldine)  Earl  of  Kildare.  at  first  allowed  to  suc- 


8t.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin.    Begun  1196. 


SIXTH    PERIOD.  331 

ceed  his  father,  was  then  repeatedly  t-ainmoned  to  London,  and  finally  confined  in  the  Tower 
on  various  charges.  His  son  attempted  an  abortive  insurrection,  incited  thereto  by  forged  let- 
ters announcing  his  father's  execution.  The  imprisoned  earl  died  in  1534;  his  son  was  exe- 
cuted in  1537. 

In  1541  Henry  VIII.  was  formally  recognized  as  king  of  Ire- 
land by  a  parliament  at  Dublin,  and  most  of  the  territorial  interests 
not  then  represented  were  subsequently  bought  over.  The  conver- 
sion of  mauy  Irish  chiefs  into  nobles  with  English  titles  produced, 
however,  disaffection  among  the  clansmen.  The  destruction  of  shrines 
and  abolition  of  monasteries,  first  begun  in  1539,  increased  the  dis- 
affection, but  it  had  no  leader.  The  use  of  artillery  gave  tlie  Eng- 
lish king  a  supreme  advantage,  and  the  time  of  purely  local  insurrec- 
tions destined  to  success  was  over. 

At  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.  in  1547  no  great  headway  had, 
however,  been  made  or  seriously  attempted  towards  overturning  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Ireland. 

With  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  1547-1553,  the  raid  on  the 
Churches  and  the  old  faith  began  to  take  large  proportions,  backed 
by  an  army  of  10,000  men,  and,  more  important  than  any  number  of 
men,  a  heavy  train  of  artillery.  The  accession  of  Mary,  1553-1558, 
reversed  this  religious  revolution,  but  did  not  reverse  the  natural 
policy  of  the  English  sovereigns  to  make  themselves  as  absolute  in 
Ireland  as  in  England.  ♦ 

Mary's  reign,  though  it  once  more  favored  the  Catholics,  still 
levelled  the  way  for  the  Protestant  Elizabeth  to  reverse  the  order  of 
things.  The  Anglicizing  of  Ireland  required  the  overthrow  of  the 
clan  system,  in  which  every  member  held  an  equal  share  in  the  land, 
in  favor  of  a  system  of  primogeniture  in  which  the  eldest  son  of  a 
lord  owned  all  the  land  of  the  clan.  In  Leinster,  at  least,  this  new 
system  made  headway  under  Mary. 

On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  1558,  an  Irishman  took  up 
the  gauntlet  for  his  country,  who  held  this  revolution  of  the  land 
system  in  check  during  his  lifetime.  John  or  Shane  O'Neil,  Lord 
of  Ulster,  proved  himself  the  equal  of  the  English  deputies.  Eliza- 
beth made  peace  with  him,  practically  on  his  own  terms,  but  he  was 


332  IRELAND. 

killed,  in  1566,  by  Highlanders  dismissed  from  his    service,  who 
refused  to  abandon  Ulster. 

The  Irish  Revolt. — Meantime,  in  1564,  active  steps  had  been 
taken  to  introduce  the  Protestant  faith  into  Ireland.  In  1569  Eliza- 
beth was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Pius  V.  The  Geraldine  Des- 
monds were  practically  kings  of  Munster,  and  the  16th  Earl  of 
Desmond  now  took  up  arms,  in  1573,  for  the  old  religion  and  the 
native  institutions  of  Ireland.  The  sympathies  of  the  Catholic 
countries  of  the  Continent  were  with  the  Irish.  But  a  small  arma- 
ment despatched  by  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  Spain  served  to  rouse 
all  the  energies  of  England  against  the  devoted  province,  and  to 
clear  the  way  for  wholesale  confiscations  of  the  enormous  estates  of 
Desmond  (570,000  acres)  and  of  the  lands  of  Munster  generally 
(1584). 

Some  years  before,  Elizabeth  had  written  to  her  Lord  Deputy,  in  anticipation  of  a  rising 
by  Shane  O'Neil,  to  assure  her  lieges  in  Dublin  that  "  it  would  be  for  their  advantage,  for  there 
will  be  estates  for  them  who  want."  It  was  in  this  spirit  that  insurrections  were  fomented  and 
then  put  down.  The  more  merciless  and  sweeping  the  confiscations,  the  sooner  a  new  revolt 
might  be  expected,  and  a  new  lot  of  estates  for  English  adventurers.  The  sovereign  who 
swelled  her  private  purse  by  the  sale  of  uegro  slaves  from  Africa,  forced  by  English  pirates 
on  the  American  dominions  of  Spain,  showed  no  mercy  to  Ireland.  W^ith  Elizabeth's  "  colony  " 
in  Munster  began  the  system  of  planting  Ireland  by  English  adventurers,  who  drove  out  the 
gentry  to  starve  and  reduced  the  free  clansmen  to  menial  and  poverty-stricken  laborers  on  the 
lands  to  which,  by  national  law,  they  had  an  equal  claim. 
• 

A  new  rising  in  the  North  under  Hugh  O'Neil,  the  son  of 
Shane,  and  O'Donnel  of  Donnegal,  assumed  national  proportions  in 
1598.  The  victory  of  Ballinaboy,  two  miles  from  Armagh,  spread 
panic  over  all  the  English  settlers  in  Ireland.  The  Earl  of  Essex, 
himself  the  son  of  an  English  adventurer  settled  in  Ireland,  was 
given  an  army  of  20,000  men  and  three-fourths  of  the  EngHsh 
annual  revenue,  but  failed  to  make  headway.  He  was  disgraced  in 
consequence. 

The  Articles  of  Mellifont. — Mountjoy,  his  successor,  was  more 
successful  ;  but  after  three  years'  effort,  during  which  a  Spanish 
armament  of  3400  men  was  obliged  to  capitulate  at  Kinsale,  he 
gave  honorable  terms  of  peace  to  thq  Irish  leaders.     The  war  had 


SIXTH    PERIOD.  333 

absorbed  all  the  revenue  and  energies  of  England  during  the  last  years 
of  Elizabeth.  The  Articles  of  Mellifont  allowed  free  exercise  of 
religion,  1603.  Elizabeth  was  already  dead  when  these  articles  were 
signed,  but  they  were  violated  by  her  successor,  James  I.,  under 
compulsion  of  the  English  Protestants. 

Ireland  under  James  I. — O'Neil  and  O'Donnel  were  driven 
from  Ireland  by  an  intrigue  which  involved  them  in  the  suspicion  of  a 
new  conspiracy,  and  the  way  was  now  open  for  a  '^^ colonization"  of 
Ulster.  The  entire  province  was  declared  a  forfeit  to  the  crown. 
Two-thirds  of  the  North  of  Ireland  were  given  to  Scotch  and  Eng- 
lish settlers  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen.  To  the  trading  guilds  of  Lon- 
don 209,800  acres  were  given,  including  Derry ;  since  called  London- 
derry. The  ancient  owners  were  not  even  to  earn  their  living  as 
day-laborers  unless  they  denied  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope;  but  this 
law  could  not  be  executed. 

In  the  last  years  of  James  I.  (died  1625)  similar  confiscations, 
amounting  to  450,000  acres,  were  carried  out  in  the  midland 
counties  of  Ireland.  But  there  was  still  left  something  for  the 
Puritans  of  Cromwell. 

Ireland  under  Charles  I. — The  troubles  between  Charles  I. 
and  his  parliaments  gave  new  hopes  of  Irish  independence.  These 
aspirations  were  stimulated  by  the  harsh  government  of  his  min- 
ister, Strafford,  the  devious  course  of  Charles  toward  his  Irish 
loyalists,  and  the  vnsh  to  restore  the  ancient  laws  and  rehgion.  In 
1641,  just  before  his  final  break  with  the  English  parliament, 
Charles  I.  had  sacrificed  Ireland  to  a  momentary  turn  of  policy,  by 
confiding  its  government  to  two  Puritans,  Parsons  and  Borlace. 
Parsons  had  declared  that  within  twelve  months  he  would  not 
leave  a  Catholic  in  Ireland.  Pym,  the  leader  of  the  Puritan  party 
in  England,  spoke  to  the  same  effect.  An  Irish  rising  in  the 
North,  under  Phelim  O'Neil,  was  stained  by  cruelties  which  were 
the  natural  result  of  the  English  oppressions  of  Ulster. 

Ireland  under  Cromwell. — The  war  thus  begun  was  con- 
tinued with  general  success  for  the  Irish  cause  till  the  landing  of 


334  IRELAND. 

Oliver  Cromwell  in  1649,  after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  Mas- 
sacres at  Drogheda  and  at  Wexford  by  his  Puritan  soldiers  stunned 
the  opposition  of  other  besieged  towns.  Cromwell  remained  in 
Ireland  less  than  a  year,  leaving  his  son-in-law,  Ireton,  to  continue 
the  war.  It  was  ended  by  the  capitulations,  after  heroic  defense, 
of  Limerick  and  Gal  way,  1652. 

The  measures  were  now  taken  which  completed  the  misery  of 
Ireland.  Over  3,000,000  acres,  in  addition  to  all  previous  confisca- 
tions, were  taken  from  the  Catholic  owners,  and  only  the  wild  and 
barren  lands  of  Connaught  were  left  to  the  Irish  Catholics.  Here, 
under  penalty  of  outlawry,  the  expelled  inhabitants  were  to  congre- 
gate before  the  1st  of  May,  1654,  and  they  were  not  to  appear  after- 
wards within  two  miles  of  the  Shannon  or  four  miles  of  the  sea. 

Results  of  the  Confiscation.— In  speaking  of  Blarney  Castle,  near  Cork,  a  writer  on 
Ireland  says:  "The  fate  of  the  once  formidable  clan  of  the  MacCarthy  is  similar  to  that  of 
nearly  all  the  ancient  families  of  Ireland.  The  descendants  in  the  direct  line  may  be  found 
working  as  day-laborers  around  the  ruins  of  castles  where  their  forefathers  had  ruled ;  and  as 
in  many  instances  a  period  of  little  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  has  passed  between  their 
grandeur  and  their  degradation,  it  can  excite  no  marvel  if  at  times  they  indulge  the  idea  that 
what  was  swept  from  them  by  the  strong  tide  of  conquest,  the  eddy  of  events  may  bring  back 
to  them  again.  We  have  ourselves  seen  the  legitimate  heir  of  one  of  the  ancient  owners  and 
rulers  of  West  Carberry  pause  as  he  delved  the  soil,  lean  on  his  spade,  and  point  to  the  moun- 
tains and  the  valleys  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  and  speak  as  if  they  were  still  his 
own." 

Of  the  family  of  Lord  Roche  of  Fermoy,  whose  estates  were  parcelled  among  the  soldiery 
of  Cromwell,  it  is  related  that  a  Lady  Roche  was  remembered  as  begging  charity  through  the 
streets  of  Cork  in  a  tattered  and  faded  court-dress.  Of  the  last  Lord  Roche,  it  is  said  that  he 
was,  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century,  a  stable-boy  in  the  County  of  Tipperary,  living  with 
the  servants  in  the  kitchen,  but  that  he  would  accept  no  wages. 

The  fidelity  of  the  Irish  to  their  religrion  under  these  oppressions  is  attested  by 
exact  figures.  In  a  country  of  2,000,000  people,  but  sixty  had  embraced  Protestantism  down  to 
the  reign  of  James  I.—Thebaud.  "  Irish  Bace.'*^ 

The  Restoration  of  Charles  II.,  1660-1685,  did  not  alle- 
viate the  condition  of  the  Irish.  The  public  -sentiment  of  England 
was  Royalist  at  home,  but  would  not  suffer  the  restoration  of  Irish 
to  their  rights,  at  the  expense  of  Cromwellians  in  Ireland. 

Under  James  II.,  1685-1688,  little  was  done  for  Ireland, 
except  the  temporary  gift  of  religious  freedom.      Events  related  in 


SEVENTH    PERIOD. 


335 


the  English  history  led  to  the  dethronement  of  this  king.  His 
behavior,  when  seeking  by  Irish  aid  to  regain  his  throne,  did  not 
show  chivalry  or  gain  personal  popularity.  In  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne,  1690,  the  troops  of  William  III.,  his  successful  opponent, 
were  double  the  Irish  force,  having  beside  an  immense  superiority 
in  artillery.     This  defeat  reflected  no  discredit  on  Irish  bravery. 

Map  Study.— See  modern  map  for  Mellifont,  Londonderry,  Drogheda,  Limerick. 


SEVENTH    PERIOD.     TIMES   OF    THE    PENAL   CODE. 
FROM    1690  TO    1782. 

Notwithstanding  the  personal  unpopularity  of  James  II., 
the  Catholic  faith  of  his  dynasty — the  exiled  Stuarts — made 
them  dear  to  the  Irish.  From  1690  to  the  death  of  the  last 
Stuart  "Pretender"  in  1788  (Genealogy,  p.  389),  they  endured 
persecutions  more  terrible  than  any  as  yet  related  for  the  sake  of 
their  religion  and  the 
dynastic  preference 
which  this  religion 
carried  with  it. 

These  sympathies 
with  the  Catholic  Stu- 
arts, whose  cause  was  gen- 
erally supported  or  favored 
by  France,  explain  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  Irish  in 
French  service  through  the 
18t.h  century.  From  the  capit- 
ulation of  Limerick,  1691, 
when  25,000  Irish  soldiers  were 
allowed  by  the  terms  of  capitu- 
lation to  pass  under  French 
colors,  till  1745,  450,000  Irish 
soldiers  died  in  the  service  of 
France.  Thirty  thousand  more 
were  enlisted  in  her  armies 
after  this  date. 

Limerick  is  called  "the    City  of  the  violated  Treaty."    The 
terms  here  accorded  by  WiUiam  III.,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war 


The  "  Treaty  Stone  "  of  Limerick. 


336  IRELAND. 

in  favor  of  James  II. ,  1691,  promised  freedom  of  religion  and  an 
oath  of  allegiance  which  should  not  include  the  Church  supremacy 
of  the  English  sovereign ;  but  these  terms  were  soon  violated  by  the 
English  Parliament.  They  were  signed  on  a  stone  near  the  town, 
which  has  been  made  a  monument  of  this  breach  of  faith. 

From  the  time  of  William  III.  (1688-1703),  through  the  reign 
of  Anne  (1703-1714),  of  George  I.  (1714-1727),  and  of  George  11. 
(1727-1760),  the  enactments  of  the  Penal  Code  against  Irish  Cath- 
olics were  made  more  and  more  rigorous,  and  continued  in  force 
until  the  time  of  the  American  Revolution.  Then  first  relaxed, 
they  were  not  removed  till  1829.  The  period  of  William  III. 
opened  for  Ireland  with  a  confiscation,  by  the  Protestant  parliament 
of  that  country,  of  1,060,792  acres.  Thus,  at  the  time  when  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Penal  Code  against  Catholics  began  to  be  sharpened, 
they  had  been  robbed,  by  the  various  confiscations,  of  six-sevenths 
of  the  soil,  without  reference  to  the  inferior  value  of  the  land  still 
left  them. 

The  following"  account  of  the  Penal  Code  is  from  Bancroft's  American  History, 
Vol.  v.,  Chap.  IV. :  "  Besides  exclusion  from  Parliament  and  from  the  elective  franchise,  a  Cath- 
olic could  not  gain  a  place  on  the  bench,  nor  act.  as  barrister  or  attorney  or  solicitor,  nor  be 
employed  as  a  hired  clerk  in  courts  of  law,  nor  sit  on  a  grand  jury,  nor  serve  as  sheriff  or  jus- 
tice of  the  peace,  nor  hold  even  the  lowest  civil  office  of  trust  or  profit,  nor  have  any  privilege 
in  a  town  corporate,  nor  be  a  freeman  of  such  corporation. 

"  If  '  papists '  would  trade  and  work,  they  must  do  it  even  in  their  native  towns  as  aliens. 
They  were  expressly  forbidden  to  take  more  than  two  apprentices  in  any  employment,  except 
in  the  linen  manufacture  only.  A  Catholic  might  not  marry  a  Protestant.  The  priest  who 
should  celebrate  such  a  marriage  was  to  be  hanged.  A  Catholic  could  not  be  a  guardian  to 
any  child,  nor  educate  his  own  child  if  the  mother  declared  herself  a  Protestant ;  or  even  if  his 
own  child,  however  young,  should  profess  to  be  a  Protestant. 

"None  but  those  who  conformed  to  the  Established  Church  were  admitted  to  study  at  the 
Universities,  nor  could  degrees  be  taken  but  by  those  who  hatl  taken  all  the  test  oaths  and 
declarations.  No  Protestant  in  Ireland  might  instnict  a  '  papist.'  '  Papists '  could  not  supply 
their  want  by  academies  and  schools  of  their  own.  For  a  (/atholic  to  teach,  even  in  a  private 
family,  or  as  usher  to  a  Protestant,  was  a  felony  punishable  by  imprisonment,  exile,  or  death. 
Thus 'papists'  were  excluded  from  all  opportunity  of  education  at  home,  except  by  stealth 
and  in  violation  of  law.  It  might  appear  that  schools  abroad  were  open  to  them  ;  but,  by  a 
statute  of  King  William,  to  be  educated  in  any  foreign  Catholic  school  was  an  unalterable  and 
perpetual  outlawry. 

"  The  child  sent  abroad  for  edacation,  no  matter  of  how  tender  an  age,  could  never  after  sue 
in  law  or  equity,  or  be  guardian,  executor  or  administrator,  or  receive  any  legacy  or  deed  of 


SEVENTH    PERIOD.  337 

gift.  He  forfeited  all  his  good?  and  chattels,  or  forfeited  for  his  life  all  his  lands.  Whoever 
sent  him  abroad,  or  maintained  him  there,  or  assisted  him  with  money,  incurred  the  same  lia- 
bilities and  penalties.  The  crown  divided  the  forfeiture  with  the  informer ;  and  when  a  person 
was  proved  to  have  sent  abroad  money  or  a  bill  of  exchange,  on  him  rested  the  burden  of  prov- 
ing that  the  remittance  was  innocent. 

"  The  Irish  Catholics  wei-e  not  only  deprived  of  their  liberties,  but  even  of  the  opportuni- 
ties of  worship  except  by  connivance.  Their  clergy  could  not  be  taught  at  home,  nor  be  sent  for 
education  beyond  seas,  nor  be  recruited  by  learned  ecclesiastics  from  abroad.  Such  priests  as 
wer6  permitted  to  reside  in  Ireland  were  required  to  be  registered,  and  were  kept  like  prisoners 
at  large  within  prescribed  limits.  By  an  Act  under  Queen  Anne— all  'papists'  exercising 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  all  monks,  friars,  and  regular  priests,  and  all  priests  not  then 
actually  in  parishes  and  to  be  registered,  were  banished  from  Ireland  under  pain  of  transporta- 
tion, and,  on  return,  of  being  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered.  Avarice  was  stimulated  to 
apprehend  them  by  promise  of  a  reward.  He  that  should  harbor  or  conceal  them  was  to  be 
stripped  of  all  property.  When  the  registered  priests  were  dead,  the  law,  which  was  made 
perpetual,  applied  to  every  priest.  By  the  laws  of  William  and  Anne,  St.  Patrick  would  have 
been  a  felon. 

"  Any  two  justices  might  call  before  them  any  Catholic  and  make  inquisition  as  to  when  he 
heard  Mass,  who  were  present  and  what  Catholic  schoolmaster  or  priest  he  knew  of,  and  the 
penalty  of  refusal  to  answer  was  a  fine  or  a  year's  imprisonment.  The  Catholic  priest  abjuring 
his  religion  received  a  pension  of  thirty,  afterwards  of  forty  pounds. 

"No  nonconforming  Catholic  could  buy  land  or  receive  it  by  descent,  devise  or  settlement, 
or  lend  money  on  it  as  the  security,  or  hold  an  interest  in  it  through  a  Protestant  trustee,  or 
take  a  lease  of  ground  for  more  than  thirty-one  years.  If  under  such  a  lease  he  brought  his 
farm  to  produce  more  than  one-third  beyond  the  rent,  the  first  Protestant  discoverer  might  sue 
for  the  lease.  Even  if  a  Catholic  owned  a  horse  worth  more  than  five  pounds,  any  Protestant 
might  take  it  away. 

"  The  dominion  of  the  child  who  became  Protestant  over  the  property  of  the  Popish  parent 
was  universal.  The  Catholic  father  could  not  in  any  degree  disinherit  his  apostasizing  son  ; 
but  the  child,  in  declaring  himself  a  Protestant,  might  compel  his  father  to  confess  upon  oath 
the  value  of  his  property,  in  which  the  court  might  out  of  it  award  the  son  immediate  main- 
tenance, and  after  the  father's  death  any  establishment  it  pleased." 

Restrictions  on  Commerce  and  Manufactures. — As  far  as 

exclusion  from  electoral  rights  is  concerned,  the  Presbyterians  of 
Ulster  were  also  included  in  the  disabilities  of  the  Irish.  The 
narrowness  of  English  policy  toward  Ireland  is  illustrated  by  this 
treatment  of  the  English  settlers.  The  importation  of  cattle  to 
England  was  forbidden,  and  all  possible  steps  were  taken  to  cripple 
the  agricultural,  manufacturing,  and  commercial  interests  of  the 
island. 

Catholic  Relief   Bills. — After  half  a  century  of  this  oppres- 
sion,   the   first   Catholic   Relief  Bill  was   passed  shortly  after  the 
15 


338  IRELAND. 

beginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756),  in  1757.  It  conceded 
only  the  rights  of  petition  and  of  public  meetings.  In  1777  the 
second  Catholic  Relief  Bill  allowed  the  lending  of  money  on  mort- 
gage, the  leasing  of  land,  the  right  to  inherit  and  bequeath  landed 
property.  The  coincidence  of  these  measures  with  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  1756-1763,  and  the  American  Revolution,  1776-1783,  respect- 
ively, will  be  noticed.  The  policy  of  propitiating  Irish  sentiment 
during  these  times  of  strain  on  the  English  government  is  apparent. 
Thus,  in  1776,  the  first  slight  relaxation  of  trade  restrictions  was 
made. 

The  Irish  Volunteers. — After  the  capitulation  of  Burgoyne  at 
Saratoga  and  the  French  alliance  with  America  (p.  288),  the  drain  of 
regular  troops  from  Ireland  required  the  passage  of  the  Militia  Bill, 
by  whiph  the  defence  of  Ireland  was  confided  to  its  own  volun- 
teers. Following  this  creation  of  the  Irish  volunteers,  and  the  con- 
sequent sense  of  power  toward  England,  the  Irish  (Protestant) 
Parliament  began  to  take  strong  ground  in  favor  of  free-trade  for 
the  island.  In  1780  free-trade  in  most  respects  was  granted.  In 
1782  the  same  sense  of  power  enabled  the  Irish  Parliament  to  obtain 
an  Act  of  Legislative  Independence  for  Ireland. 

EIGHTH  PERIOD:  LEGISLATIVE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  IRELAND. 

1 782- 1 800. 

The  Irish  Parliament  was  limited,  as  before,  to  Protestants, 
and  was  not,  even  under  this  limitation,  a  truly  representative  body. 
Still,  this  period  of  legislative  independence  did  much  to  break 
down  the  divisions  of  religious  jealousy  and  intolerance. 

In  1793  was  passed  an  act  of  Catholic  Emancipation  from  all 
provisions  of  the  Penal  Code,  except  that  afie'cting  the  right  to  hold 
the  highest  offices  of  state,  to  sit  in  the  Parliament,  or  act  as  judge. 
These  beginnings  of  conciliatory  tendencies  towards  the  Cathohcs 
were  naturally  developed  by  the  events  of  the  French  Revolution 
(after  1789),  and   the  consequent  sympathies  of  all  conservative 


EIGHTH    PERIOD. 


839 


interests.  In  1795  was  established  the  Catholic  College  of  May- 
nooth,  the  first  since  the  reign  of  James  I.,  when  the  last  Catholic 
College  of  Ireland,  St 
Nicholas  at  Gal  way,  was 
closed,  for  non-con- 
formity of  the  Principal. 
Meantime,  the 
spread  of  French 
Revolutionary  prin- 
ciples over  Europe,  un- 
settling all  society  and 
government,  although 
carrying  also  some  true 
ideas  as  to  the  rights 
of  the  governed  and 
the  injustice  of  social 
oppressions,  divided  Ire- 
land in  two  parties. 
The  Revolutionary 
prejudice  against  sovereigns  in  general  harmonized  with  Irish 
aspirations  for  independence  from  England.  Thus  the  Irish  peas- 
antry, the  Presbyterians,  and  the  extreme  advocates  of  French  prin- 
ciples, were  combined  in  sympathies  against  the  conservative  sen- 
timents of  the  Catholics  of  the  upper  orders  and  of  the  Anglo-Irish 
loyalists. 

The  terrors  of  England  were  excited  by  the  menacing  attitude 
of  the  French  toward  England  (especially  following  the  rise  of 
Bonaparte,  after  1795),  by  various  landings  of  French  expeditions  in 
Ireland,  and  by  the  constantly  threatening  preparation  of  more 
formidable  expeditions  than  really  appeared. 

The  Irish  rising  in  1798,  under  direction  of  the  United 
Irishmen  (organized  since  1791),  was  therefore  put  down  with  piti- 
less and  relentless  cruelty  (Battle  of  Vinegar  Hill).  Meantime,  the 
Irish  volunteers  had   been  suppressed,  since  1793,  on  account  of 


The  Parliament  House  in  Dublin  before  the  Union. 
{Now  the  Bank  of  Ireland.) 


340  IRELAND. 

the  cliange  of  parties  and  of  .sentiment  toward  England  following 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution. 

The  harsh  proscriptions  of  the  Protestant  parliament  after  the 
rising,  alienated  the  Irish  national  feeling  in  favor  of  continued 
legislative  independence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  anti-French  and 
anti-revolutionary  sentiments,  common  to  England  and  so  many 
Irish,  favored  the  legislative  union  with  England.  This  was  made 
in  1800. 

IREUND   SINCE  THE    PARLIAMENTARY   UNION    OF    1800. 

The  general  state  of  the  country  during  the  next  few  years, 
the  period  when  the  career  of  Bonaparte  constantly  excited  hopes 
of  independence,  may  be  argued  from  the  army  force  kept  in  Ire- 
land. In  1803  an  army  of  50,000  militia  was  under  arms  and  pay, 
besides  a  force  of  70,000  enrolled  volunteers. 

In  this  year  took  place  the  miscarriage  of  the  rising  headed  by 
the  gifted  Robert  Emmett,  his  consequent  execution,  and  famous 
death-speech. 

Catholic  Emancipation. — Meantime  the  agitation  for  Catholic 
representation  continued.  It  assumed  colossal  proportions  after 
1821,  under  the  leadership  of  Daniel  O'Connell.  In  1828  this  great 
man  took  the  decisive  step  of  procuring  his  election  to  Parliament 
in  County  Clare,  in  advance  of  any  relief  of  Catholic  parliamentary 
disability,  and  presented  himself  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  Relief  Bill,  proposed  in  consequence  of  his  step,  pro- 
cured Catholic  emancipation  in  1829.  O'Connell  himself  was 
obliged  to  procure  a  re-election,  as  the  Relief  Bill  was  not  allowed 
to  react  on  his  individual  election,  made  before  its  passage. 

"  A  lofty  column  on  the  walls  of  Derry  bore  the  effigy  of  Bishop  Walker,  who  fell  at  the 
Boyne,  armed  with  a  sword,  typical  of  his  martial  inclinations  rather  than  of  his  religious  call- 
ing. Many  long  years  had  his  sword— sacred  to  liberty  or  ascendency,  according  to  the  eyes 
with  which  the  spectator  regarded  it— turned  its  steadfast  point  to  the  broad  estuary  of  Lough 
Foyle.  Neither  wintry  storms  nor  summer  rains  had  loosened  it  in  the  grasp  of  the  warlike 
churchman's  effigy,  until,  on  the  13th  day  of  April,  1829— the  day  the  royal  signature  was  given 


EIGHTH    PERIOD.  341 

to  the  Act  of  Emancipation— the  sword  of  Walker  fell  with  a  prophetic  crash  upon  the  ram- 
parts of  Derry  and  was  shattered  to  pieces."— (ilfc(ree.) 

After  1840  O'Connell  began  an  agitation  for  Eepeal  of  the 
Union  (Home-rule),  by  public  meetings  which  reached  colossal  pro- 
portions. The  English  government  interfered,  forbade  the  meet- 
ings, and  prosecuted  the  great  orator  and  his  associates.  He  was 
fined  and  sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment.  The  sentence  was 
reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords  after  three  months.  O'Connell  died 
in  1847  at  Genoa. 

After  the  terrible  famines  of  1846  and  1847  began  an  enormous 
emigration  to  America,  amounting  since  that  time  to  about  4,000,000, 
in  addition  to  the  earlier  emigration.  Georgia,  North  Carolina  and 
South  Carolina  were  originally  mainly  settled  by  Irish. 

Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church. — Next  in  importance 
to  the  Emancipation  Act  of  1829  must  be  placed  the  disestablish- 
ment of  the  English  State  Church  in  Ireland,  under  the  Premier- 
ship of  Gladstone,  in  1869.  Down  to  this  year  Ireland  had  been 
taxed  for  the  support  of  an  English  State  Church  which  did  not  repre- 
sent even  the  bulk  of  Irish  Protestants,  who  were  Presbyterians. 

Agricultural  Distress.— Under  the  conditions  established  by  the  English  confiscations 
in  and  after  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  all  details  of  Irish  history  sink  into  hisignificance  before 
one  grand  disturbing  element— the  constant  agricultural  discontent  and  suffering.  The  oppres- 
sive treatment  which  began  with  confiscation  was  continued  toward  the  dispossessed  population. 
This  harshness  of  treatment  was  increased  by  the  difference  of  race  between  conquerors  and 
conquered.  The  evil  of  "  absenteeism,"  i.  e.,  of  the  residence  of  the  foreign  land-owners  in 
England,  prevented  the  establishment  of  local  ties  and  sympathies  between  landlords  and 
tenants.  The  system  of  short  annual  leases,  and  the  law  which  deprives  the  tenant  farmer  of 
any  right  to  his  own  improvements,  the  habit  of  managing  the  confiscated  estates  by  middle- 
men, whose  only  interest  is  the  extortion  of  the  largest  sum  of  money,  and  the  generally 
oppressive  laws  as  to  Irish  industry  and  trade,  have  produced  the  frightful  state  of  pauperism 
in  Ireland  which  still  continues. 

Criminal  outrages  and  violence  were  the  natural  result.  Among  the  soldiers  disbanded 
'after  the  Treaty  of  Limerick  began  the  combination  afterwards*  kuown  as  Kapparees  and 
White  Boys.  These  first  became  prominent  in  the  disorders  which  broke  out  in  Tipperaiy 
between  1760  and  1775.  Similar  bands  of  peasants,  leagued  against  the  oppressive  land  system, 
were  known  in  1785  as  Right-boys.  At  the  same  time  an  organization  in  Ulster,  which  visited 
and  searched  the  houses  of  C;itholics  for  concealed  arms,  was  known  as  that  of  the  "  Peep- 
o'-day  Boys,"  the  precursors  of  the  Orange  Association.  (The  Orange  Lodges  were  founded 
f^fter  1775.)    Thejr  were  opposed  by  the  "Defenders,"  afterwards  absorbed  in  the  "United 


342  IRELAND. 

Irishmen,"  founded  by  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone  in  1791.    These  again  appear  after  1798  as 
"KibbonMen." 

The  Fenian  orgranization  of  our  own  time  is  a  later  development  of  associated 
secret  resistance  to  English  oppression. 

The  Land-leagrue,  headed  by  Mr.  Pamell,  was  a  combination  to  effect,  by  legitimate 
means  and  the  pressure  of  public  sentiment,  a  permanent 
improvement  in  the  Irish  land-laws  and  in  the  condition  of 
the  Irish  peasantry.  Evictions  for  non-payment  of  rent, 
supported  by  constabulary  and  soldiers,  roused  Ireland  in 
1881  to  a  pitch  of  excitement  which  led  the  English  govern- 
ment to  proclaim  martial  l:iw.  This  exertion  of  military 
force  against  an  entire  class  of  unfortunate  debtors,  whose 
^^.  misery  has  been  caused  by  an  oppressive  system,  is  without 
a  parallel  in  the  history  of  nations. 
^\  In   1882  a  Relief  Bill  was  passed  by  the  Gladstone 

■  "  Ministry,  conceding  to  farmer  tenants  a  system  of  govern- 

mental commissions,  with  power  to  lessen  rents.    This  step 
•1  if^^/^^^^^^'  •^^  '  was  supported  by  the  appointment  of  a  Lord  Lieutenant  and 

Charles  S  Pamell  Chief  Secretary  to  the  charge  of  Irish  afliairs  known  to  be 

acceptable  to  the  Land-league  ;  but  a  band  of  revolutionists 
caused  the  assassination  of  the  Chief  Secretary,  Lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  and  the  Under- 
Secretary  Burke.  This  crime  was  committed  to  block  the  conciliatory  policy  inaugurated, 
and  to  embitter  once  more  the  antagonism  of  races,  and  of  history.  The  discovery  of  the 
guilty  association  was  effected,  and  the  trial  and  execution  of  the  assassins  followed;  but 
the  unhappy  results  for  Ireland  will  be  long  apparent. 

Distinguished  Irishmen.— Notwithstanding  her  misfortunes  and  op- 
pressions, Ireland  has  contributed  more  than  her  share  to  the  distinguished 
men  of  Great  Britain.  In  oratory  and  eloquence  her  renown  begins  especially 
with  the  names  of  Henry  Flood,  Henry  Grattan,  and  John  Philpot  Curran,  be- 
fore and  during  the  legislative  independence  of  Ireland.  A  still  greater  Irish- 
man, Edmund  Burke  (before  and  during  the  French  Revolution),  was  probably 
at  once  the  mo.st  brilliant  and  the  most  solid  mind  of  all  British  statesmen. 

Of  the  same  time  are  Barre,  famed  for  his  defense  in  the  English  Parliament 
of  the  American  Colonies,  and  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan  (speech  against 
Warren  Hastings).  Of  the  following  period  are  Daniel  O'Connell  and  Richard 
Lalor  Shiel. 

The  great  virtue  of  Irish  eloquence,  as  represented  by  these  illustrious  men, 
is  its  union  of  inspired  expression,  with  solid  argument  and  logical  debating 
power.  No  orator  of  English  birth  has  ever  reached  the  same  combination  of 
sense  and  form.  To  Ireland  belongs  also  the  name  of  Arthur  Wellesley,  Lord 
Wellington,  victor  of  Waterloo  (p.  297). 

In  English  literature  the  18th  century  boasts,  in  its  early  period,  of 
the  famous  Dean  Swift  and  Richard  Steele,  the  associate  of  Addison  in  the 


DISTINGUISHED     NAMES.  343 

"  Spectator,"  as  names  belonging  to  Ireland.  Oliver  Goldsmith  and  Lawrence 
Sterne  belong  to  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  To  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century  belongs  Sir  Phillip  Francis,  reputed  author  of  the  Letters  of  Junius. 
Miss  Edgeworth,  the  novelist,  and  Thomas  Moore,  the  poet,  belong  to  the  close 
of  the  18th  and  opening  of  the  19th  century.  Sheridan,  already  mentioned  as  an 
orator,  was  also  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  author. 

In  philosophy  and  metaphysics  Great  Britain  can  boast  no  more  illustrious 
name  than  Bishop  Berkeley,  first  half  of  the  18th  century.  Balfe  and  Sullivan, 
the  two  distinguished  musical  composers  of  England  in  the  19th  century,  are 
Irish ;  also  James  Sheridan  Knowles  and  Boucicault,  the  dramatists. 

In  foreign  countries,  during  the  18th  century,  the  Irish  held  conspicuous 
positions.  The  Governor  of  Cadiz  and  Spanish  Ambassador  at  the  Court  of 
Louis  XVI.,  was  Alexander  O'Reilly.  Another  O'Reilly  saved  the  remnant  of 
the  Austrians  at  Austerlitz,  and  in  the  Austrian  array  list  of  the  century  there 
are  forty  Irish  names  holding  ranks  from  Colonel  to  Field-Marshal. 

In  French  service  the  Irish  were  too  numerous  for  individual  mention. 
General  MacMahon,  the  hero  of  Magenta  (p.  298),  and  late  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  is  a  descendant  of  one  of  these  Irish-French  families. 

Among  distinguished  men  of  Irish  blood  in  America,  besides 
the  famous  Patrick  Henry,  are  nine  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence,  and  six  who  took  part  in  framing  the  Constitution.  Of  the  Revolu- 
tionary heroes,  Montgomery,  Moylan,  Sullivan,  Wayne,  Clinton,  Stark,  Knox, 
Hand,  Dillon,  were  Irish.  The  same  holds  of  Commodore  John  Barry,  "the 
father  of  the  American  Navy  ; "  of  George  Clinton,  first  Governor  of  New  York ; 
Robert  Fulton,  American  inventor  of  the  steamboat ;  De  Witt  Clinton,  pro- 
moter of  the  Erie  Canal ;  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  the  South  Carolina  statesman; 
Gen.  Andrew  Jackson ;  and  of  Commodores  Stewart,  Shaw,  and  McDonough, 
the  latter  all  prominent  in  the  war  of  1812. 

Sixteen  thousand  Irish  soldiers  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Colonies  in  the 
War  of  the  Revolution.  In  the  Union  armies  of  the  late  civil  war  were  one 
hundred  and  fifty-five  thousand  of  Irish  birth,  and  nearly  double  that  number 
of  Irish  descent.     Large  numbers  also  fought  for  the  Confederates. 

For  many  of  the  statistics  and  names  quoted  above,  acknowledgment  is  made  to  Eev.  James 
J.  Brennan's  "  Catechism  of  Irish  History." 

Special  acknowledgments  for  this  abridgment  are  due  Rev.  Father  Thebaud's  "  Irish  Race,'" 
and  Darcy  McGee's  valuable  Summary  of  Irish  History.  The  te^t  of  the  latter  especially  has 
been  freely  used. 


344 


IRELAND 


REVIEW   OF  THE   PERIODS   OF   IRISH    HISTORY. 

Celtic  and  Phoenician  Period,  ante-dating  b.  c.  1000,  until a.d.  432 

Great  time  of  Irish  Christian  learning  and  influence "  432-  794 

Time  of  the  Northmen  and  Danish  Piracies,  to  Brian  Boru '*  794-1014 

Period  of  Provincial  Kings  to  the  Norman-English  Invasion. ...    *'  1014-1170 

Period  of  Anglo-Norman  settlement **  1170-1509 

Period  of  English  Encroachment,  Confiscation,  and  Violence. ..    '*  1509-1690 

Period  of  the  Penal  Code  and  Commercial  Oppression "  1690-1782 

Period  of  Legislative  Independence "  1782-1800 

Period  since  the  Union **  1800 


CHRONOLOGY. 


Celtic  settlement  from  Spain  of  unknown  antiquity. 

Phoenician  commerce  as  early  as B.  o.  1300 

The  famous  royal  palace  at  Emania,  about "  300 

Irish  colony  in  Argyle  founded A.  d.   258 

St.  Patrick's  mission "  432 

St.  Columbkill  died "  596 

St.  Cohimbanus  died "  615 

Danish  invasions  began "  794 

Kenneth  McAlpine  subdues  the  Picts "  843 

Battle  of  Clontarf  ends  the  Danish  invasions "  1014 

Norman  settlements  after : "■  1170 

Statutes  of  KUkenny "  1367 

Richard  II.'s  invasions,  just  before "  1400 

Henry  \'1II.  acknowledged  by  an  Irish  Parliament "  1541 

Shane  O'Niel  died "  1566 

Elizabeth's  conflscatious  in  Munster "  1584 

Articles  of  Mellifont.    Confiscations  in  Ulster "  1608 

Irish  Revolt  subdued  by  Cromwell  and  Ireton "  1658 

Irish  war  in  support  of  James  II.    Battle  of  the  Boyne "  1690 

Rights  of  petition  and  public  meeting  granted "  1757 

Second  Relief  Bill "  1777 

Legislative  Independence "  178S 

Rising  of  the  United  Irishmen "  1798 

Legislative  Union "  1800 

Catholic  Emancipation "  1829 

O'Connell's  agitation  for  Repeal  of  the  Union,  after "  1840 

Famine  and  immense  Emigration  to  America  in  1846  and "  1847 

Disestablishment  of  the  Protestant  State  Church "  1869 

Agitation  of  the  Land  League  after *'  1880 


TABLE    OF    IRISH    HISTORY.  345 


TABLE   OF  IRISH    HISTORY  SINCE   THE    CHRISTIAN    ERA  TO    EMPHASIZE 
THE   RELATIVE   DURATION   OF  THE    PERIODS. 

1st  Century.— Druid  Celtic  Civilization. 
2d  Century.—     "  "  " 

3d  Century.—     " 


4th  Century.— 


.5th  Century.— Christian  Celtic  Civilization. 


6th  Century.- 


7th  Century. 


8th  Century.— 


9th  Century.— Danish  Piracies. 


10th  Century.- 


11th  Century.— Local  Kings. 


12th  Century.— Local  Kings  and  Anglo-Norman  Settlements. 


l?th  Century.— Normans  amalgamate  with  the  Irish. 


14th  Century.- 


15th  Century.- 


16th  Century.— English  Land-tenure  and  Confiscation. 


17th  Century. 


18th  Century.— Penal  Code. 


19th  Century,— Partial  Emancipation. 


146  IRELAND 


QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE   ON    IRISH    HISTORY. 

FIRST   REVIEW   LESSON. 

From  what  country  was  Ireland  probably  settled  by  the  Celts  ?     (P.  309.) 

Of  what  race  is  the  Irish  nation  a  member? 

To  Avhat  family  of  nations  does  this  race  belong  ?    (P.  31.) 

Name  the  other  races  of  this  family.    (P.  31.) 

Name  the  remaining  great  families  of  language.    (P.  31,) 

To  what  family  of  nations  do  the  Phoenicians  belong  ?    (P.  32.) 

What  civilizations  did  they  unite  and  spread  V    (P.  25.) 

How  early  did  they  reach  Ireland  ?    (P.  27.) 

From  what  place  besides  Syria  and  Carthage  did  they  saD  there  ?    (P.  308.) 

Mention  characteristics  of  the  Irish  nation,  and  similar  traits  in  other  peoples  of  the  same 
race  ?    Compare  p.  174. 

Why  is  Ireland  the  most  characteristic  representative  of  these  general  race  tendencies  ? 
(Pp.  308,  309.) 

What  were  the  peculiar  institutions,  forms  of  government,  and  social  life  of  early  Ireland  ? 
(Pp.  310,  311.) 

When  does  her  first  historic  period  end  ? 

What  resistance  was  ofiered  Christianity  ? 

What  Inference  as  to  earlier  Irish  civilization  ? 

What  is  the  date  for  St.  Patrick's  mission  ? 

Were  there  Christians  already  in  Ireland  ? 

What  great  revolution  in  Roman  history  was  taking  place  in  the  century  of  St.  Patrick  ? 

Did  this  revolution  aflfect  Ireland  ? 

What  influence  on  the  succeeding  centuries  of  Irish  history  ?    (P.  313.) 

How  do  you  show  the  power  and  glory  of  Ireland  at  this-  time  ?     (Pp.  313-319.) 

Mention  distinguished  Saints,  missionaries,  men  of  learning,  and  give  details  of  their  indi- 
vidual lives. 

SECOND    REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  were  the  leading  Irish  schools  ? 
What  famous  monastery  near  the  coast  of  Scotland  ? 
What  famous  monastery  on  the  coast  of  Northumbria  ? 
What  is  the  name  and  time  of  the  Irish  Apostle  of  Northumbria  f 
How  is  the  name  Scotland  derived  ? 
When  was  the  Irish  colony  in  Scotland  first  settled  ? 
When  did  a  king  of  this  colony  subdue  the  Picts  ?    His  name  ?  (P.  817.) 
When  were  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  added  to  this  kingdom  ?    (P.  818.) 
How  had  they  been  civilized  ? 

Name  once  more  the  date  when  the  Picts  were  subdued,  and  the  kings  of  the  Irish  line 
became  supreme  in  Scotland  * 

What  contemporary  event  of  French  and  German  history  ?    (P.  155.) 
When  did  the  Danish  invasions  begin  ? 


QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE.         347 

What  towns  did  the  Danes  settle  ? 

What  battle  Anally  stopped  the  incursions,  and  what  was  the  date  ? 

What  Irish  king  died  in  this  battle  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  his  reign  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  the  following  period  as  to  government  ? 

Why  was  a  strong  monarchy  not  developed  in  Ireland  ? 

What  were  the  local  divisions  of  the  country  at  this  time  ? 

And  the  corresponding  families  ?    (Pp.  322,  323.) 

What  were  the  features  of  English  history  in  the  11th  century  ?    (P.  323.) 


THIRD  REVIEW  LESSON. 

When  did  the  Normans  invade  Ireland  ? 

What  general  causes  ? 

What  particular  cause  ? 

Who  was  the  king  of  England  at  the  time  ? 

Was  he  a  Norman?    Ans.  No  ;  he  belonged  to  the  House  of  Anjou  (p.  187). 

What  were  the  relations  between  the  English  kings  and  Norman  barons  in  Ireland  ? 

Did  this  tend  to  prevent  a  Norman  conquest  of  Ireland  ? 

What  other  causes  prevented  it  ? 

What  was  the  broadest  extent  of  the  English  Pale  ?    The  narrowest  extent  ? 

What  became  generally  of  the  Normans  in  Ireland  ? 

What  statutes  show  the  tendency  to  amalgamation  by  trying  to  forbid  it  ?    (P.  328.) 

Name  the  English  kings  between  Henry  II.  and  Edward  I.?    (P.  327.) 

Were  they  present  in  Ireland  ? 

What  defeat  did  Edward  11.  suffer  in  Scotland  ? 

What  result  for  Irish  history  ? 

What  became  of  David  Bruce  ? 

Why  did  confiscations  result  ?    (P.  328.) 

What  families  built  up  their  fortunes  by  these  confiscations  ?    (P.  328.) 

Which  headed  the  English  interest  ? 


FOURTH    REVIEW   LESSOK. 

Name  the  English  kings  after  Edward  I.  to  Richard  II.  ?    Ans.  Edward  II.,  Edward  in. 
What  king  among  these  came  over  to  Ireland  ?    (P.  329.) 
What  expeditions  show  the  general  independence  of  the  country  at  the  time  ? 
How  long  before  1400  were  these  expeditions? 
Name  the  English  kings  after  1400  to  Henry  VH.  ?    (P.  329.) 
Why  were  these  kings  not  connected  with  Ireland  ?    (P.  329.) 
What  family  practically  ruled  Ireland  in  the  time  of  Henry  VII.  ?    (P.  330.) 
How  did  a  country  so  independent  so  easily  acknowledge  the  authority  of  Henry  VIII.  f 
(P.  330.) 

When  was  this  ?    (P.  331.) 

Give  the  dates  for  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.    (P.  331.) 


348  IRELAND. 

What  was  the  course  of  events  for  Ireland  now  ? 

Give  the  dates  for  Queen  Mary  ?    (P.  331.) 

What  transformation  in  the  land  system  still  went  on  ? 

What  relation  has  Mary's  reign  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  as  to  Irish  matters  ? 

What  province  was  Anglicized  under  Mary  ? 

What  are  the  dates  for  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ?    (Pp.  331,  333.) 

What  Irish  chieftain  held  Elizabeth  in  check  ? 

When  did  he  die  ? 

When  was  Elizabeth  excommunicated  ? 

When  did  the  rising  of  the  Geraldine  Desmonds  of  Munster  take  place  ? 

With  what  result  ? 

When  were  the  confiscations  of  Munster  accomplished  ? 

FIFTH  KEVIEW  LESSOl^. 

When  was  the  next  Irish  rising  against  the  oppressor  ? 

Who  were  the  generals  of  the  English  ? 

What  was  their  success  ? 

What  were  the  Articles  of  Mellifont? 

When  were  they  made  ? 

When  did  Elizabeth  die  ? 

Who  was  her  successor  ? 

How  did  he  keep  the  Articles  of  Mellifont  ? 

In  what  province  were  the  confiscations  now  made  ? 

What  province  had  been  "  colonized  "  by  Elizabeth  ? 

What  province  had  been  Anglicized  under  Mary  ? 

What  province  had  been  mainly  always  in  the  limits  of  the  English  Pale  ?    Ans.  Meath. 

Who  succeeded  James  I,  ? 

What  acts  of  Charles  I.  caused  disaffection  in  Ireland? 

When  did  this  disaffection  end  in  revolt  ? 

Who  suppressed  this  revolt  ? 

By  what  massacres  ? 

What  became  of  the  Irish  Catholics  ? 

Give  the  approximate  time  of  Cromwell— of  the  Restoration  ?    (P.  834.) 

What  English  king  after  Cromwell  ? 

What  was  done  to  relieve  Ireland  from  the  Cromwellians  ? 

Who  succeeded  Charles  IL  ? 

What  events  led  to  his  overthrow  ?    Sec  English  history. 

Where  did  he  attempt  retrieval  ?    (P.  335.) 

Qive  the  date  for  his  defeat  and  name  the  battle. 

SIXTH  REVIEW  LESSON. 

What  treaty  concluded  this  war  ? 
Who  was  English  king?    His  date  ?    (P.  336.> 
What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  ?    (P.  836.) 
How  were  they  kept  ? 


QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE.  349 

Why  did  the  Irish  Catholics  sympathize  with  the  cause  of  the  Stuart?  ?    (P.  335.) 

How  did  they  show  this  sympathy  ?    (P.  335.) 

What  was  the  amount  of  French  enlistments  of  Irish  in  the  18th  century  ? 

What  confiscation  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  ? 

How  much  laud  was  left  for  Irish  Catholics  ?    (P.  3:36.) 

Mention  provisions  of  the  Penal  Code  ? 

Under  what  sovereigns  was  this  Code  elaborated  ? 

Give  the  dates  for  Anne,  George  I.,  George  II. 

When  was  the  Penal  Code  first  relaxed  ? 

What  are  the  dates  for  the  Seven  Years'  W^ar  ?    (P.  338.) 

When  was  a  Second  Relief  Bill  passed  ? 

Name  its  provisions  ? 

What  are  the  dates  for  the  American  Revolution  ?    (P.  388.) 

What  led  to  the  creation  of  the  Irish  Volunteers  ? 

How  did  this  aJBEect  the  Irish  Protestant  Parliament  as  regards  England  f 

What  measure  was  therefore  passed  ? 

What  was  the  period  of  legislative  independence  ? 

What  influence  on  Ireland  and  the  Penal  Code  ? 

What  great  statesmen  before  and  during  this  period  ?    (P.  342.) 

What  Catholic  College  was  established  in  1795  ?    (P.  ^39.) 


SEVENTH   REVIEW   LESS0:N^. 

What  leading  event  of  European  history  at  this  time  ? 
What  influence  on  Irish  parties  ? 
What  rising  followed  ? 
What  was  the  date  ? 

What  body  was  active  in  harsh  measures  afterward  ? 
How  did  this  favor  the  legislative  union  of  Ireland  and  England  ? 
What  sympathies  worked  in  the  same  direction  ? 
What  is  the  date  for  the  Legislative  Union  ? 
What  great  event  followed  ? 
Give  the  date. 

Name  the  man  who  secured  this  result. 
What  was  his  subsequent  effort  ? 
What  success  ' 

What  event  stands  next  in  importance  to  Catholic  emancipation  ?    (P.  341.) 
What  general  feature  of  Irish  history  is  more  important  than  its  details  since  the  English 
Confiscations  ?    (P.  341.) 

What  fraternities  and  organizations  have  resulted  ? 
What  names  among  English  statesmen  belong  to  Ireland  ? 
What  names  in  English  letters  belong  to  Ireland  ? 
What  part  has  been  played  by  the  Irish  in  Europe  ? 
What  leading  names  of  American  history  belong  to  Ireland  ? 


350  IRELAND. 


SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

What  great  event  of  European  history  took  place  in  the  5th  century  b.  c.  ?    (Pp.  143-146.) 

How  long  after  St.  Patrick's  mission  did  the  Anglo-Saxons  invade  England  ?    (P.  145.) 

How  long  before  St.  Patrick's  mission  did  the  Visigoths  establish  their  empire  in  Spain  and 
France  ?    (P.  143.) 

Same  question  as  to  the  Burgundians  in  France.    (P.  144.) 

Same  question  as  to  the  Vandals  in  Africa.    (P.  144.) 

How  long  after  St.  Patrick's  mission  was  the  great  battle  with  the  Huns  ?     (P.  145.) 

How  long  after  this  date  did  Clovis  establish  the  Frankish  State  ?    (P.  148.) 

How  long  after  this  date  did  Theodoric  establish  the  Ostrogoth  State  in  Italy  ?    (P.  146.) 

How  long  after  432  did  Alboin  found  the  Lombard  State  in  Italy  ?    (P.  147.) 

How  long  after  432  was  the  Christian  mission  of  Augustine  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  ?    (P.  149.) 

What  Anglo-Saxon  State  rose  to  importance  after  600  ?    Am.  Northumbria. 

How  long  before  died  Columbkill,  and  how  long  after  died  Columbanus  ? 

What  Anglo-Saxon  State  was  important  after  700  ?    Am.  Mercia. 

What  Anglo-Saxon  State  was  important  after  800  ?    Ans.  Wessex. 

What  was  the  relative  state  of  Irish  civilization  at  this  time  ? 

What  led  to  a  decline  of  Irish  civilization  after  800  ? 

What  shows  that  this  decline  was  merely  relative  ?  Am.  The  continued  ascendency  of  Irish 
culture  over  Scotland. 

When  did  the  Northmen  first  invade  Ireland  ? 

When  did  they  first  invade  England  ? 

When  did  they  settle  France  ? 

Who  was  king  of  England  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Clontarf  ? 

Who  was  French  sovereign  in  the  time  of  Brian  Boru,  1014  ?    (P,  180.) 

Who  was  German  sovereign  ?    (P.  163.) 

How  much  later  was  the  First  Crusade  ?    (P.  183.) 

Who  was  French  king  in  the  time  of  Roderick  O'Connor  ?    (P.  182.) 

Who  was  German  sovereign  at  this  time?    (P.  163.) 

What  were  leading  events  of  European  history  between  1170  and  1509  ?    (Pp.  170,  209.) 

Who  was  Emperor  when  Henry  VITI.  was  acknowledged  king  of  Ireland  in  1541  ?    (P.  228.) 

Who  was  the  natural  ally  of  Ireland  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  ?    Am.  Spain. 

What  prevented  James  I.  and  Charles  I,  fi-om  justly  treating  Ireland  ?  Am.  The  theory  of 
an  English  State  Church  supremacy,  making  religions  conformity  essential  to  political  unity. 

What  caused  the  cruel  treatment  of  Ireland  in  the  18th  century  ?  Am.  Hanoverian  dread 
of  the  Stuarts  and  their  Catholic  sympathizers. 


ENGLAND. 


ENGLAND    BEFORE    THE    CHRISTIAN    ERA. 


Our  first  information  as  to  the  early  inhabitants  of  Britain  dates  frotib 
the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  (p.  105).  In  55  B.  c.  the  Conqueror  of 
Gaul  landed  on  the  island,  and  repeated  his  expedition  in  the  following  year. 
No  settlement  or  conquest  resulted  from  these  expeditions.  They  were  in- 
tended to  overawe  the  inhabitants  and  prevent  combinations  for  assisting  and 
Inciting  revolt  among  the  recently  subjugated  Celtic  tribes  of  Gaul. 

The  ancient  British  were  of  the  same  Celtic  race,  and  the  accounts 
given  by  Caesar  of  the  Gallic 
tribes  supplement  his  accounts 
of  the  British,  with  whom  he 
was  so  short  a  time  in  contact. 
We  are  also  assisted  by  our 
knowledge  of  the  Irish  Celts, 
which  is  more  perfect,  to  a  gen- 
eral conception  of  the  British. 

Their  condition  was  in- 
ferior to  that  of  their  Gallic 
and  Irish  brothers,  but  was  far 
superior  to  that  of  the  mere 
barbarism  sometimes  imagined. 
Phoenician  commerce  was  not 
without  its  influence.    The  tin 

mines  of  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Islands  had,  from  the  14th  century  b.  c, 
brought  Phoenician  navigators  to  Britain.  The  lead  mines  of  Somerset  and  the 
iron  mines  of  Northumberland  were  also  worked  in  antiquity.  Gold  coins  were 
used  before  the  Roman  invasion,  arguing  not  only  a  certain  civilization,  but 
showing  also  in  their  design  an  influence  derived  from  the  Greeks  of  Marseilles 
and  Southern  France. 

The  famous  remains  of  Stonehenge,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  Wiltshire,  are 


Stonehenge. 


352  ENGLAND. 

among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  stone  Celtic  monuments  common  to  Britain, 
Ireland,  and  France,  Caesar,  in  his  account  of  the  Druids,  the  priests  of 
Celtic  paganism,  says  that  those  of  France  made  studies  in  Britain. 


FIRST.  SECOND.  THIRD,  AND  FOURTH  CENTURIES. 

Nearly  a  century  elapsed  after  Oaesar^s  visit  before  the 
Eomans  again  set  foot  in  Britain.  Meantime  the  influence  of  com- 
merce, and  intercourse  with  the  Romanized  Celts  of  Gaul,  Avas  pre- 
paring a  way  for  the  conquest  to  be  accomphshed.  Here,  as  else- 
where, Roman  conquest  was  a  process  owing  its  permanence  to  the 
civilization  which  partly  went  before,  and  which,  partly  coming 
after,  solidified  and  strengthened  the  victories  of  force. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  a.  d.  43, 
that  the  general  Aulus  Plautius  began  the  permanent  Roman  occu- 
pation of  the  Island.  It  was  in  the  reigns  of  the  Emperors  Ves- 
pasian, Titus,  and  Domitian  that  Agricola  completed  the  conquest, 
A.  D.  78-84.  A  line  running  between  the  Friths  of  Forth  and 
Clyde — i.  e.,  between  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow — was  the  boundary  on 
the  North,  and  here  was  constructed  a  Roman  wall,  in  the  times  of 
the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  of  which  vestiges  still  remain. 

Roman  Remains. — A  more  remarkable  work  was  the  earher 
wall  of  Hadrian,  seventy  miles  in  length,  between  the  Rivers  Tyne 
and  Solway.  Its  ruins  are  a  testimony  not  only  to  the  engineering 
skill  and  science  of  the  Romans,  but  also  to  the  barbaric  valor  of 
the  Celtic  Picts  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and  to  the  care  which 
protected  the  rest  of  Britain  from  their  ravages.  Beyond  the  wall 
of  Antonine,  Scotland  is  covered  with  vestiges  of  Roman  camps  of 
the  armies  sent  against  the  Picts.  Some  of  these  camps  are  esti- 
mated to  have  held  armies  of  30,000  men,  and  along  the  wall  of 
Hadrian  at  least  15,000  soldiers  must  have  been  kept  in  garrison. 

For  the  condition  of  Britain  under  Boman  mle  the  matter  explanatory  of  the 
Empire  in  general  is  in  point  (pp.  136-130).  All  its  provinces  resemble  one  another  in  the 
description  there  given.  Besides  the  ruins  of  the  fortifications  mentioned,  remains  of  the 
Roman  period  stUl  exist  in  mosaic  pavements  of  villas  and  town  houses,  and  in  subterranean 
constructions  for  the  heating  of  buildings.    Coins,  and  minor  works  of  art  and  industry  are 


FIFTH    AND    SIXTH    CENTURIES, 


353 


abundantly  found.  On  a  coin  of  Hadrian  appears  the  first  figure  of  Britannia.  The  names  of 
towns  ending  in  "■  Chester  "  indicate  a  Koman  origin— from  castmm  or  castra,  camp.  Names 
ending  in  "coin  "  also  indicate  Roman  origin— from  colonia,  colony. 

Th.e  early  diffusion  of  Christianity  among  the  Roman  British  is  attested  by  the  firm 
support  given  the  Emperor  Constantine  during  his  rise  to  power  by  his  British  legions. 
Names  of  the  Bishops  from  Britain  appear  ia  ecclesiastical  synods  of  the  4th  century.  The 
first  British  martyr,  St.  Alban,  died  at  Verulam  in  England  during  the  persecution  under 
Diocletian,  in  304. 

Map  Study.— See  modern  maps  for  the  Forth,  the  Clyde,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  the  Tyne, 
the  Solway. 


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P^ 

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FIFTH   AND   SIXTH    CENTURIES. 

In  the  opening  of  the  5th  century  after  Christ,  Britain 
had  been  a  Roman  province  for  a  longer  period  than  is  covered  by 
its  whole  Protestant 
history.  It  was  in 
A.  D.  411,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  troubles 
in  Italy,  France,  and 
Spain  resulting  from 
the  invasions  of  the 
German  tribes  (p. 
144),  that  the  Em- 
peror Honorius  with- 
drew the  Roman  Brit- 
ish legions  for  service  on  the  Continent.  Britain  was  not  at  the 
moment  in  apparent  danger,  nor  was  it  intended  to  abandon  the 
province  permanently.  But  the  thickening  disasters  of  the  Conti- 
nental provinces  kept  the  island  deprived  of  her  regular  military 
force.  The  Picts  of  the  Highlands  grew  continually  bolder  and 
more  successful  in  their  predatory  expeditions.  In  these  they 
were  assisted  by  "Scots"  from  Ireland  and  the  Irish  settlement 
in  Argyle,  and  by  pirates  from  the  tribes  of  North  Germany. 

Amongr  the  tribes  of  Q-ermany,  those  on  the  Baltic  shore  and  on  the  North  Sea  had 
been  naturally  most  remote  from  Roman  influence.  They  were  therefore  not  Christians,  as 
were,  for  instance,  the  Goths.  By  nature  they  were  the  dullest,  as  they  were  in  locality  the 
least  favored,  of  the  Germans.    The  three  tribes  which  effected  the  conquest  of  England  were 


Roman  Ruin  at  Leicester. 


354  ENGLAND. 

known  to  the  Bomans,  by  a  general  name  given  to  the  population  of  North  Gennany,  as 
Saxons.  The  Saxons  who  settled  in  England  were  from  the  modem  province  of  Holstein. 
Above  them,  in  Sleswick,  were  the  closely  related  Angles.  Most  powerful  of  the  league,  their 
name  was  adopted  by  it,  and  gave  the  name  to  England.  In  the  Peninsula  of  Jutland  (Den- 
mark) were  settled  the  Jutes,  whose  bands  landed  first  in  Kent  under  Hengist  and  Horsa. 

The  Anglo-Saxons,  under  which  name  the  Jutes  are  included, 
although  long  known  along  the  east  coast  of  England  as  piratical 
marauders,  and  just  previously  engaged  in  hostile  attacks  on 
Britain,  had  been  employed  by  the  British  to  protect  them  from  the 
Picts  and  Scots.  Quarrels  as  to  pay  arose  and,  instead  of  hired  pro- 
tectors, the  Anglo-Saxons  became  the  conquerors  and  exterminators 
of  the  British,  a.  d.  449.     (See  p.  145.) 

The  German  settlement  of  England  differs  remarkably  from  the  German  settle- 
ments of  other  Roman  provinces.     The  East  and  West-Goths,  Franks,  and  Lombards  were 

joined  to  the  subjugated  Roman  popula- 
tions by  the  ties  of  religion.  The  con- 
querors settled  among  the  conquered, 
respecting  their  superior  civilization  and 
striving  to  acquire  it.  But  the  conquest 
of  Britain  was  one  of  dispossession  and 
extermination.  The  wealthier  and  edu- 
cated British,  who  escaped  the  sword,  fled 
to  France— especially  to  Brittany,  hence 
named— or  they  crowded  toward  the  moun- 
tains of  Wales,  and  lost  their  habits  of 
British  and  Saxon  Relics,  found  in  the  Thames.      refinement  in  the  distress  of  poverty  and 

of  warfare,  and  in  the  forced  association 
with  their  more  illiterate  peasant  brethren.  The  conquest  of  England  was  not  rapid  or  im- 
mediate. Its  gradual  process  did  not,  however,  lead  to  a  mixture  of  British  and  Anglo-Saxons. 
The  latter  remained  pagans. 

KINGDOMS  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXONS  IN    ORDER   OF   FOUNDATION. 

Kent Y'^f 

Sussex  (South  Saxons) "  ^"'^ 

Wessex  (West  Saxons) "  ^^^ 

Essex  (East  Saxons) 

Bernicia "  ^^'^ 

Deira "  5«« 

East  Anijlia ^''^ 

Mercia "  ^®' 


.    SEVENTH    AND    EIGHTH    CENTtJRTES.  355 

Map  Study,  with  reference  to  Modern  Map  of  England.— The  position  of 
Mercia  was  that  most  advanced  toward  the  west  m  middle  England.  It  lay  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Trent,  by  which  river  line  middle  England  was  invaded,  and  spread  from  that 
centre.  East  Anglia  lay  mainly  between  the  Ouse  and  Stour,  comprehending  the  counties 
of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  (North-folk  and  South-folk).  Deira  lay  between  the  Humber  and  Tees. 
Bernicia  lay  between  Tees  and  Forth.  The  positions  of  Essex,  Kent,  and  Sussex  are 
implied  in  those  of  the  modern  counties.  The  kingdom  of  "Wessex  first  centred  about  Win- 
chester, was  bounded  on  the  east  by  Essex,  Kent,  and  Sussex,  and  on  the  west  had  a  grad- 
ually extending  border,  reaching  to  the  Severn  after  552. 

Down  to  the  year  600,  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
settlements,  the  British  had  maintained  possession  of  the  whole  western  side  of  Britain.  The 
extension  of  the  kingdom  of  Wessex  to  the  west  had  already,  however,  in  reaching  the  Severn, 
separated  "West  Wales  "  (Somerset  and  Cornwall)  from  "North  Wales"  ;  corresponding  to 
the  modern  Wales,  but  reaching  further  east  (to  the  Severn). 

In  607,  the  same  king  Ethelfrith  who  united  Bernicia  and  Deira  in  one  Northumbrian  king- 
dom, pushed  its  territory  westward  to  Chester  and  then  added  to  it  Lancashire.  Thus  the 
British  were  parted  into  three  divided  and  therefore  weakened  sections.  North  of  Lancashire 
lay  the  third  British  State,  reaching  to  the  Clyde  and  called  Strathclyde.  (That  part  of  Strath- 
clyde  lying  below  the  present  English  border  was  called  Cumbria.)  Southern  Scotland  was  thus 
far,  therefore,  on  the  west,  part  of  a  British  State,  and  on  the  east,  part  of  Anglo-Saxon  North- 
umbria.  Beyond  the  Forth  and  Clyde  were  the  Picts,  of  the  same  Celtic  race  with  the  British, 
and  in  Argyle  and  spreading  gradually  beyond  it,  the  Irish  "  Scots,"  also  of  the  same  blood 
with  Picts  and  British,  and  at  this  time  superior  to  either. 


SEVENTH    AND    EIGHTH    CENTURIES. 

England  about  600  A.  D. — In  the  constant  changes  of  fron- 
tier during  the  expulsion  of  the  British  and  the  wars  between  the 
different  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms,  the  year  600,  not  far  removed  from 
the  first  beginnings  of  Mercian  power,  is  a  convenient  dividing  date. 
It  was  just  after  this  year,  in  603,  that  Bernicia  and  Deira  were  united 
as  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  thus  reducing  the  "  octarchy  "  of 
kingdoms  to  a  "  heptarchy."  The  date  600  also  fixes  the  time  at 
which  the  heathenism  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  began  to  yield  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

The  first  Christian  missions  arrived  in  England  in  597, 
despatched  from  Rome  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great.  The  rival  of 
the  Northumbrian  Ethelfrith  was  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  whose 
sway  extended  also  over  Essex  and  East  Anglia.  The  marriage  of 
Ethelbert  with  Bercta,  daughter  of  a  Frankish  Merovingian  king 
(Charibert),  opened  the  way  for  the  mission  headed  by  Augustine. 


356  ENGLAND. 

For  Bercta,  herself  a  Christian,  came  to  Kent  accompanied  by  a 
Christian  bishop. 

"  Tears  before,  when  but  a  young  deacon,  Gregory  had  noticed  the  white  bodies,  the  fair 
faces,  the  golden  hair  of  some  youths  who  stood  bound  in  the  market-place  of  Rome.  '  From 
what  country  do  these  slaves  come?'  he  asked  the  traders  who  brought  them.  'They  are 
Angles,'  the  slave-dealers  answered.  The  deacon's  pity  veiled  itself  in  poetic  humor.  '  Not 
Angles,  but  angels,'  he  said, '  with  faces  so  angel-hke.  From  what  country  come  they  f '  '  They 
come,'  said  the  merchants, '  from  Deira.'  '  De  irS,'  was  the  untranslatable  I'eply.  '  Aye, 
plucked  from  God's  ire  and  called  to  Christ's  mercy  ;  and  what  is  the  name  of  their  king  ?' 
'  Aella,'  they  told  him,  and  Gregory  seized  on  the  word  as  of  good  omen.  '  Alle  luia  shall  be 
sung  there,'  he  cried  and  passed  on,  musing  how  the  angel-faces  should  be  brought  to  sing  it. 
Years  went  by,  and  the  deacon  had  become  Bishop  of  Rome,  when  Bercta's  marriage  gave 
him  the  opening  he  sought. 

"  '  Strangers  from  Rome '  was  the  title  with  which  the  missionaries  first  fronted  the  English 
king.  The  march  of  the  monks,  as  they  chanted  their  solemn  litany,  was  in  one  sense  the  leturn 
of  the  Roman  legions  who  had  retired  at  the  trumpet  call  of  Alaric.  It  was  to  the  tongue  and 
thought,  not  of  Gregory  only,  but  of  such  men  as  the  English  had  slaughtered  and  driven  over 
sea  that  Ethelbert  listened  in  the  teaching  of  Augustine.  Canterbury,  the  earliest  royal  city 
of  German  England,  became  the  centre  of  Latin  influence.  The  Latin  tongue  became  again 
one  of  the  tongues  of  Britain,  the  language  of  its  worship,  of  its  correspondence,  its  litera- 
ture. But  more  than  the  tongue  of  Rome  returned  with  Augustine.  Practically  his  landing 
renewed  the  union  with  the  Western  World  which  that  of  Hengist  had  destroyed.  The  new 
England  was  admitted  into  the  older  commonwealth  of  nations.  The  civilization,  art,  and 
letters  which  had  fled  before  the  sword  of  the  English  conquest,  returned  with  the  Christian 
faith.  It  is  impossible  not  to  recognize  the  influence  of  the  Roman  missionaries  in  the  fact 
that  the  codes  of  customary  English  law  began  to  be  put  into  writing  soon  after  their 
&rri\a.\.''— (Green,  '"'■  Sfurrt  History  of  the  English  Peopled) 

Times  of  Northumbrian  Ascendency. — In  G17  the  North- 
umbrian king,  Ethelfrith,  was  succeeded  by  Edwin,  whose  name  is 
retained  in  Edinburgh  (Edwin's-burg),  a  reminder  of  the  extent  and 
power  of  Northumbria  over  Scotland  (by  union  of  Bernicia  and 
Deira).  Under  this  king,  Essex  and  East  Angha  passed  from  Kent- 
isli  supremacy  to  the  Northumbrian,  and  the  other  Anglo-Saxon 
states  also  acknowledged  its  over-lordship. 

With  a  daughter  of  the  Kentish  king,  who  married  the  North- 
umbrian Edwin,  the  Roman  missionaries  made  their  way  to  North- 
umbria,  and  in  beginning  its  conversion  secured  for  the  Christian 
faith  the  supremacy  which  the  power  of  North umbria  over  England 
conveyed.  Mercia  represented  the  heathen  opposition.  Its  king, 
Penda,  by  the  battle  of  Hatfield,  G35,  in  which  Edwin  was  defeated 


SEVENTH  AND  EldHTH  CENTURIES. 


357 


and  slain,  checked  for  the  moment  the  advance  of  Christianity. 
But  under  the  new  Northumbrian  king,  Oswald,  who  summoned 
missionaries  from  the  Irish 
monastery  at  lona,  was  founded 
the  Irish  monastery  on  the 
Island  of  Lindisfarne,  which 
thenceforth  became  the  strong- 
hold of  Christianity  in  North 
Britain.  The  opposition  of 
heathen  Mercia  was  broken  in 
655  by  the  battle  of  Winwced, 
near  Leeds,  won  by  the  North- 
umbrian Oswi. 

In  668  Theodore  of  Tarsus  was 

dispatched  to  England  from  Rome  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  From  liim  dates  the 
organism  as  to  dioceses,  even  of  the  modern 
English  Chm-ch.  "  The  conquest  of  the  con- 
tinent had  been  wrought  either  by  races  such 
as  the  Goths,  which  were  already  Christian, 
or  by  heathens  like  the  Franks,  who  bowed 
to  the  Christian  faith  of  the  nations  they 
conquered.  To  this  oneness  of  religion  be- 
tween the  German  invaders  of  the  empire 
and  their  Roman  subjects  was  owing  the 
preservation  of  all  that  survived  of  the 

Roman  world.  The  Church  everywhere  remained  untouched.  The  Christian  bishop  became 
the  defender  of  the  conquered  Italian  or  Gaul  against  his  Gothic  and  Lombard  conqueror ;  the 
mediator  between  the  German  and  his  subjects,  the  one  bulwark  against  barbaric  violence  and 
oppression.  To  the  barbarian,  on  the  other  hand,  he  was  the  representative  of  all  that  was 
venerable  in  the  past,  the  living  record  of  law,  of  letters,  and  of  art.  But  in  Britain  the  priest- 
hood and  the  people  had  been  exterminated  together ;  the  very  memory  of  the  older  Christian 
Church  which  existed  in  Roman  Britain  had  passed  away. 

"  In  his  work  of  organization,  in  his  creation  of  parishes,  in  his  arrangement  of  dioceses,  and 
the  way  in  which  he  grouped  them  round  the  See  of  Canterbury,  Theodore  was  unconsciously 
doing  a  political  work.  The  policy  of  Theodore  clothed  with  a  sacred  form  and  surrounded 
with  divine  sanctions  a  unity  which  had  before  rested  on  no  basis  but  the  sword.  The  regular 
subordination  of  priest  to  bishop,  of  bishop  to  primate,  in  the  administration  of  the  Church, 
supplied  a  mould  on  which  the  civil  organization  of  the*  state  quickly  shaped  itself.  The 
councils  gathered  by  Theodore  were  the  first  of  all  national  gatherings  for  general  legislation. 
It  was  at  a  much  later  time  that  the  Wise  men  of  Wessex,  of  Mercia  or  Northumbria,  learned 


Portal  of  the  Saxon  Church  at  Monkwearmouth, 
Durham,  built  in  674. 


358  ENGLAND. 

to  come  together  in  the  "  Witenagemote  "  of  all  England.  It  was  the  ecclesiaBtical  synods 
which,  by  their  example,  led  the  way  to  national  parliaments,  as  it  was  the  canons  enacted  in 
Buch  synods!  which  led  the  way  to  a  national  system  of  \&w.^'— Green. 

Caedmon  and  Bede.— To  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria  belong  the  two  most  famous 
names  of  Anglo-Saxon  Christianity  before  Alfred  the  Great,  namely,  Caedmon,  author  of  an 
Anglo-Saxon  Biblical  poem  of  the  7th  century,  and  Bede,  of  the  7th  and  8th  centuries.  Caed- 
mon, a  cowherd,  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Whitby. 

Bede,  "  the  Venerable,"  spent  his  whole  life  in  the  monastery  of  Jarrow.  "He  became,  as 
Burke  rightly  styled  him,  the  father  of  English  learning.  The  traditions  of  the  older  classic 
culture  were  first  revived  for  England  in  his  quotations  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  of  Seneca  and 
Cicero,  of  Lucretius  and  Ovid.  In  his  own  eyes,  and  those  of  his  contemporaries,  his  most 
important  works  were  the  commentaries  and  homilies  upon  various  bo6ks  of  the  Bible,  wbich 
he  had  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers.  But  he  was  far  from  confining  himself  to 
theology.  In  treatises  compiled  as  text-books  for  his  scholars,  Bede  threw  together  all  that 
the  world  had  then  accumulated  in  astronomy  and  meteorology,  in  physics  and  music,  in 
philosophy,  grammar,  arithmetic,  medicine.  In  his  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  English  Na- 
tion, Bede  was  at  once  the  founder  of  medieval  history  and  the  first  English  historian.  His 
last  work  was  a  translation  into  English  of  the  Grospel  of  St.  John.  The  completion  of  its  last 
sentence  was  the  moment  of  his  death,  755  (bom  about  674)."—  Green. 

The  place  held  by  Northumbria  as  the  leading  Anglo-Saxon  state  of  the  7th  century, 
was  lost  before  its  close.  Cumbria,  the  English  portion  of  Strathclyde,  had  been  conquered 
from  the  British,  and  it  was  in  attempting  to  subject  the  Picts  beyond  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
that  the  Northumbrian  power  was  broken— battle  of  Nechtansmere  in  Fife,  685. 

Mercia  became  the  leading  Angrlo-Saxon  state  in  the  8th  century.— This 
state  now  comprised  all  Central  England,  from  Wales  to  the  Eastern  Coast.  It  reached  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Manchester  and  Sheffield  to  the  mouth  of  the  Severn,  the  line  of  the 
Thames  and  the  Ouse.  Through  the  8th  century  Mercia  controlled  both  Northumbria  and  the 
South  English  states.  East  Anglia,  Sussex,  Kent,  and  Wessex. 


NINTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    KINGS   OF  THE  9th   CENTURY. 

Egbert a.  d.  802-836 

Ethelwolf. "    836-858 

Ethelbald "    &-58-860 

Ethelbert "    860-866 

Ethelredl *'    866-8n 

Alfred  the  Great "    871-901 

Rise  of  Wessez. — Through  the  policy  of  Charlemagne,  and 
his  opposition  to  the  growing  strength  of  a  kingdom  which  did  not 
acknowledge  his  Imperial  rule,  the  power  of  Mercia  was  crippled 
in  the  9th  century,  and  replaced  by  that  of  Wessex.  Egbert,  the 
nominee  of  the  Frankish  Court,  by  its  favoring  policy  established 


NINTH    CENTURY.  359 

the  over-lordship  of  Wessex  over  Mercia  and  Northumbria,  after  823. 
Egbert  styled  himself  king  of  the  English.     (See  map  at  p.  154.) 

The  Danes. — From  the  opening  of  the  9th  century  and  a  little 
earlier,  a  new  barbarian  influx  began  to  retard  or  overthrow  the 
work  of  Christian  civilization  in  England.  The  inhabitants  of  Den- 
mark, of  Norway,  and  of  Sweden,  also  of  Germanic  blood  and  nearly 
related  to  the  English,  but  destitute  of  the  relative  though  very 
backward  civiHzation  which  three  centuries  of  settled  life  and  two 
centuries  of  Christian  faith  had  achieved,  began  their  piratical  raids 
on  England.  The  "  Danish  "  invasions — for  as  Danes  the  North- 
men generally  were  known  in  England — ^broke  the  rising  power  of 
Wessex,  and  for  two  centuries  blocked  the  progress  of  England. 

Danish  Settlements. — Between  866  and  871  the  Danes  passed 
from  pillage  and  raids  to  regular  settlement.  The  larger  part  of 
England  was  conquered  and  held  by  them — namely.  East  Anglia, 
Mercia,  and  Northumbria — leaving  for  the  kings  "of  England" 
only  the  southern  part  of  the  Island  and  Wessex  proper.  Thus,  in 
the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great,  871-901,  this  king  was  hard  pressed 
by  the  Danes  in  his  own  little  kingdom,  and  in  his  times  of  greatest 
success  his  territory  reached  only  a  short  distance  north  of  the 
Thames. 

This  easy  conquest  by  the  Danes  of  more  than  two-thirds  of  all  England  resulted  from 
the  jealousy  of  Northumbria  and  Mercia,  the  hitherto  powerful  states,  towards  Wessex.  and 
from  their  indifference  as  to  its  success  in  establishing  a  new  supremacy. 

Alfred  the  Great. — The  efforts  of  Alfred  to  support  the  stag- 
gering Anglo-Saxon  culture  were  not,  however,  the  less  praiseworthy 
because  confined  in  their  range.  History  has  unanimously  accorded 
this  king  the  character  of  a  conscientious  and  earnest  friend  of 
civilization. 

"  While  the  country  was  overrun  by  the  Danes  he  was  said  to  have  entered  a  peasant's  hut, 
and  to  have  been  bidden  by  the  housewife,  who  did  not  recognize  him,  to  turn  the  cakes  which 
were  baking  on  the  hearth.  The  young  king  did  as  he  was  bidden,  but  in  the  sad  thoughts 
which  came  over  him  he  forgot  his  task,  and  bore  in  amused  silence  the  scolding  of  the  good 
wife,  who  found  her  cakes  spoiled  on  her  return." 


360  ENGLAND. 

TENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH   KINGS  OF  THE  10th  CENTURY. 

Edward  the  Elder a.  d.  901- 925 

Athelgtan "  925-  940 

Edmund "  940-  947 

Edred "  947-955 

Edwig '^  955-959 

Edgar "  958- 9T5 

Edward  the  Martyr "  975-  978 

Ethelredll "  979-1016 

After  Alfred,  who  died  in  901,  the  kings  of  Wessex  experienced  varying  fortunes  in  their 
efforts  to  be  kings  of  all  England.  The  Danes  of  Northumbria  and  Mercia  seem  to  have 
been  so  far  incorporated  with  the  old  population  that  the  resistance  of  England  beyond  the 
Thames  to  Wessex  was  at  least  as  much  local  as  Danish  in  its  character.  During  this  century 
foreign  invasions  of  Danes  were  not  frequent  or  troublesome, 

Alfred  was  succeeded  by  Edward  the  Elder,  901-925,  who  subjected  all  England. 
A  dangerous  revolt  of  North  England  followed  his  death,  but  Athelstan,  925-940,  maintained 
the  supremacy  of  Wessex,  adding  to  its  dominions  West  Wales, --e. «.,  Cornwall. 

Notwithstanding  Athelstan's  famous  victory  of  Brunanbuxgrh,  937,  his  suc- 
cessor, Edmirad  the  "Magnificent,"  once  more  yielded  up  to  Danish  supremacy  all  England 
north  of  Watling  Street,  the  road  from  London  to  Chester— the  boundary  in  Alfred's  time 
of  greatest  success.  His  minister,  Dunstan,  the  greatest  Englishman  of  his  time,  succeeded 
in  restoring  the  power  of  Wessex  by  abandoning  to  Scotland  the  Northumbrian  territory 
lying  beyond  the  Tweed  and  reaching  to  the  Forth  and  Clyde  (p.  318).  Thus  was  established 
the  present  boundary  between  England  and  Scotland.  With  a  reduced  teiritory  to  rule,  and 
a  balance  on  the  north  in  Scotland  against  the  Danes  of  Northumbria,  Dunstan  continued  to 
hold  them  in  check.  His  administration  lasted  through  the  reign  of  Edred,  947-955,  of  Edwig, 
955-959,  of  Edgar,  959-975. 

The  reign  of  Edgrar  is  the  great  time  of  Anglo-Saxon  England.  His  ships  annually 
cruised  round  the  whole  of  Britain. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  "  the  Martyr,"  975-978,  the  national  policy  of  Dunstan,  which  had  at 
once  ruled  and  reconciled  the  northern  Danish  part  of  the  English  dominions,  was  overturned, 
and  Dunstan  died. 

The  succession  of  Ethelred  "the  Unready,"  979-1016,  found  the  kings  "of  Eng- 
land "  once  more  confined  to  Wessex  and  Kent. 

"  The  daily  life  of  even  the  noblest  of  Anglo-Saxons  was  that  of  a  half-savage  people. 
Their  wars  and  turbulence  were  not  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  the  domestic  virtues.  When 
not  engaged  in  war,  the  nobles  amused  themselves  in  hunting  and  hawking ;  and  when  the 
sports  of  the  day  were  over,  all— master  and  servant— met  in  the  great  hall.  At  the  upper  end 
of  this,  on  a  dais  or  raised  part,  was  placed  a  rude  table,  canopied  with  hangings  of  cloth  to 
serve  as  a  protection  from  draughts  of  air  and  from  the  rain,  which  often  leaked  through  the 
roof,  and  round  this  sat  the  lord,  his  family,  and  his  guests.  This  table  was  served  by  slaves, 
who  knelt  as  they  ofiiered  to  each  huge  joints  on  the  spit,  from  which  the  chiefs  cut  slices  with 
their  daggers." 


ELEVENTH    CENTURY.  361 

ELEVENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    KINGS   OF  THE   11th   CENTURY. 

Ethelred  II.  the  Unready. A.  D.  (979)-1016 

Edmund  Ironside,  son  of  the  ioregoiug — "  1016 

Canute  the  Dane "  1016-1035 

Harold,  Harefoot,  son  of  the  foreg.iing "  1035-1040 

Hardicanute,  brother  of  the  foregomg "  1040-1043 

Edward  the  Confessor,  son  of  Ethelred  the  Unready "  1042-1065 

Harold *'  1066 

William  the  Conqueror,  of  Normandy "  1066-1087 

William  II.,  Rufus,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1087-1100 

A  massacre  of  the  Danes  in  Wessex,  1002,  roused  among 
their  brethren  in  Denmark  a  spirit  of  vengeance.  The  conquest  of 
all  England  was  undertaken  by  King  Sweyn,  and  after  his  death 
was  accomplished  by  his  son  Canute.  Edmund  Ironside,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Ethelred  the  Unready,  had  resisted  the  Danes 
bravely,  but  died  in  a  few  months. 

Canute. — Although  Canute  was  a  Christian  convert,  his  con- 
quest and  his  early  reign  were  stained  by  cruelty,  but  for  this  he 
atoned  by  the  justice  and  wisdom  of  his  later  rule.  His  empire 
comprised  England,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 

The  11th  century  thus  witnessed  the  final  amalgamation  of  the  English  Danes  with  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  But  no  sooner  was  this  process  in  completion  than  a  new  overthrow  and  over- 
turning of  English  society  began  with  the  Norman  Conquest. 

The  reigns  of  Canute's  sons,  Harold,  1035-1040,  and  Hardicanute,  1040-1043,  and  of  the 
Saxon  Edward  the  Confessor,  1042-1065,  made  no  change  in  English  history,  except  that  during 
this  latter  reign  the  way  was  opened  for  the  Norman  Conquest  by  the  Introduction  of  Norman 
favorites  and  fashions. 

Edward  the  Confessor.— Tlie  popularity  of  Canute  as  English  king  had  been  strength- 
ened by  his  marriage  with  Emma,  the  widow  of  Ethelred  the  Unready.  Edward  the  Confessor, 
who  succeeded  the  sons  of  Canute,  was  the  son  of  Ethelred  and  Emma.  But  this  widow  of  two 
English  kings,  one  Anglo-Saxon  and  one  a  Dane,  was  herself  sister  of  Richard  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy. Her  son,  Edward  the  Confessor,  had  been  brought  up  at  the  Norman  Court;  his  own 
preferences  were  for  the  French  civilization  which  Normandy  possessed. 

Harold.— At  the  death  of  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1065,  his 
minister  Harold  secured  for  himself  the  succession  in  the  absence 


362 


ENGLAND 


of  legitimate  heirs.  The  lack  of  a  hereditary  title  on  Harold's  part 
inspired  the  ambition  of  William  Duke  of  Normandy  to  make  him- 
self the  English  sovereign.  This  ambition  was  supported  by  the 
Norman  tendencies  of  Edward  the  Confessor's  Court,  and  by  the 
fact  that  the  Danes,  who  had  given  three  kings  to  England, 
and  to  whom  Harold  himself  belonged  on  the  mother's  side,  were 
themselves  foreigners  in  England  and  of  the  same  blood  with  the 
Normans. 

The  Norman  Conquest— William  had,  during  the  lifetime  of 

Edward,  secured  the  consent  of 
,^-'   '    •  ■'-'•       ••    j'  -,,,  Harold  to  his  succession,  and 

claimed  to  have  received  that 
of  Edward.  He  thus  consid- 
ered Harold's  election  as  a  per- 
sonal defiance,  and  landed  in 
England  with  an  army  of  60,000 
men.  In  the  battle  of  Senlac, 
near  Hastings,  1066,  the  Eng- 
lish army  was  routed,  and  Har- 
old was  killed. 

Not  without  bloody  resist- 
ance did  William  master  the  country  subsequently,  but  the  supe- 
riority of  Norman  discipline  was  too  great  for  any  permanent  check 
to  his  plans.  The  resistance  was  sufficient,  however,  to  excuse  a 
general  confiscation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  landed  property.  The 
Saxons  were  reduced  to  the  level  of  an  inferior  and  disinherited 
race.  At  least  60,000  estates  were  parceled  out  for  the  foreigners, 
and  the  word  "bond,"  which  originally  meant  an  Anglo-Saxon  free 
farmer,  gained  the  new  sense  indicated  by  the  word  bondage. 


Castle  of  Robert "  the  Devil,"  father  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  at  Falaise,  in  Normandy, 


Notwithstanding-  the  suflfering-  and  misery  inflicted  by  the  Norman  conquest, 
England  first  gained  by  it  the  union  of  her  hitherto  rival  and  contending  provinces,  and  the 
beginnings  of  all  her  later  civilization. 

William  the  Conqueror  was  a  great  organizer  and  legislator.  He  abolished  the  Eng- 
lish slave-trade,  hitherto  carried  on  at  Bristol  in  great  extent.  He  abolished  the  death  penalty, 
and  protected  the  Jews.    The  "  Star-Chamber"  was  so  called  from  the  "  etarrs,"  or  bonds,  of 


TWELFTH    CENTURY.  363 

the  Jews  there  deposited.  The  genius  of  William  suppressed  the  insubordination  of  the  nobles 
he  had  enriched,  by  the  use  of  the  old  English  local  law.  He  thus  supported  the  authority  of 
the  crown  by  courts  of  justice  to  which  the  barons  were  obliged  to  pay  deference.  The  com- 
pleteness of  system  by  which  William  reorganized  England  is  indicated  by  the  still  existing 
Domesday  Book,  a  complete  register  of  the  landed  estates. 

GENBALOaT  OF  THE  NORMAN  AND  PLANT AGBNET  LINES  IN  THE   IITH  AND  12TH  CENTURIES. 

William  the  Conqueror. 


Robert.  William  Rufus.  Henry  I.  Adela  =  Count  of  Blois. 

Stephen. 
Matilda,  -  Gcoftrey  of  Anjou. 
*  Henry  II. 

Richard.  John. 


TWELFTH    CENTURY. 
ENGLISH    KINGS    OF   THE    12th    CENTURY. 

Henry  L,  son  of  the  Conqueror a.  d.  1100-1135 

Matilda,  granddaughter  of  the  Conqueror **     1135-1153 

Stephen,  grandson  of  the  Conqueror "     1135-1154 

Henry  IL,  son  of  Matilda «'     1154-1189 

Richard  I.,  son  of  the  foregoing "     1189-1199 

Union  of  Normandy,  Brittany,  and  England. — William 
the  Conqueror  had  left  the  Duchy  of  Normandy,  with  Brittany  and 
Maine,  which  he  had  also  conquered,  to  his  eldest  son  Robert,  and 
England  to  his  second  son  William  Rufus.  But  after  the  death  of 
Rufus,  in  1100,  the  third  son  of  William,  Henry  I.,  united  JSTor- 
mandy,  Brittany  and  Maine  under  one  government  with  England. 

Edmund  Ironsides,  the  valiant  defender  of  the  Saxons  against  the  Danes,  had  left  two 
sons,  who  made  their  escape  to  Hungary.  One  of  these  sons,  Edgar  Atheling,  had  been  elected 
English  king,  after  the  death  of  Harold,  by  the  Saxon  opposition  to  William  the  Conqueror. 
The  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling  married  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland— the  daughter  of  this  marriage 
married  Henry  I. ;   thus  the  Saxon  and  Norman  lines  were  united. 

Times  of  Stephen  and  Matilda.— The  only  son  of  Henry  I.  was  drowned  at  sea. 
By  the  king's  will,  his  daughter  Matilda,  was  to  succeed  him.  She  had  been  married  to 
Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou.  The  succession  of  a  daughter  to  the 
throne  was  not  in  accordance  with  Norman  feudal  ideas.  (The  law  of  primogeniture— e.  e., 
succession  of  the  eldest  son,  was  brought  to  England  from  Normandy.)    The  daughter  of  thQ 


364 


ENGLAND. 


Conqueror,  Adela,  had  married  the  Count  of  Blois.      Stephen,  the  son  of  this  marriage,  and 
grandson  of  the  Conqueror,  became  a  rival  claimant  for  the  English  throne.    The  contentions 

of  the  parties  of  Matilda  and  Stephen 
filled  England  with  disorder  and  blood- 
shed till  1153.  In  this  year  a  compro- 
mise gave  to  Stephen  the  throne,  and  to 
Matilda's  son  Henry  the  succession. 
This  fell  to  him  with  the  death  of  Ste- 
phen, a  year  after,  in  1154. 

The  line  of  Plajitagenet  (the 
name  is  derived  from  iHanta  genista, 
the  broom  plant  which  Geoffrey  wore 
in  his  helmet),  is  also  called  the  An- 
gevin (Anjevin),  from  the  province  of 
Anjou.  The  natiAC  French  of  Anjou 
were  of  different  race  from  the  Nor- 
mans, and  on  account  of  close  neighbor- 
hood to  Normandy,  the  more  bitterly 
inimical.  The  feudal  rivalries  of 
French  provinces  in  the  early  Middle 
Age  were  fully  as  pronounced  as  na- 
tional rivalries  in  our  own  day.  The 
intermarriage  with  Anjou  had  been 
arranged  by  Henry  I.  to  conciliate  this 
hostility,  but  the  distinction  between 
the  Norman  line  ending  with  Henry  I. 


Norman  Gateway  at  Bristol. 


and  the  Angevin  line  beginning  with  Henry  II.  is  highly  important. 

The  Line  of  Ax^ou  acquires  Acquitaine. — Before  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  II.,  1154-1189,  he  had  married  Eleanor  of  Poitou, 
heiress  of  Acquitaine,  a  word  implying,  at  this  time,  the  Southwest 
Provinces  of  France — Poitou,  Saintonge,  Auvergne,  Perigord,  the 
Limousin,  the  Angoumois,  Guienne,  and  Gascony.  Thus  the  Line 
of  Anjou  was  a  dynasty  of  French  barons,  ruhng  the  larger  part  of 
France,  whose  dominions  also  included  England.  It  is  customary 
to  speak  of  EngUsh  possessions  in  France,  but,  till  a  century  later, 
fact  and  feeling  would  have  warranted  the  opposite  phrase,  of  French ' 
possession  in  England.  The  Anjous  were  far  more  powerful  than 
the  French  king.  (See  map  for  the  age  of  the  Crusades,  p.  182,  and 
compare  p.  187.) 


The  policy  of  Henry  II.  in  England  was  not,  however,  anti-English.      As  a  sov- 
ereign, he  showed  much  political  moderation,  but  this  moderation  was  devoted  to  an  impos- 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  365 

Bible  end,  the  combination  of  really  unheterogeneous  dominions.  In  his  famous  struggle  with 
Thomas  a  Becket,  he  exhibited  that  error  of  a  purely  political  conception  of  the  Church  often 
found  in  English  and  in  other  sovereigns. 

Thomas  k  Becket  had  served  the  king  as  soldier  and  Chancellor,  but  when  appointed  to  the 
See  of  Canterbury  he  resisted  Henry's  efforts  to  control  the  appointments  of  bishops,  and  to 
bring  the  clergy  under  control  of  the  secular  courts.  The  irritation  consequently  engendered 
cost  him  his  life.  Four  knights  of  Henry's  train,  seizing  on  an  impatient  word,  perhaps  in- 
tended to  excite  them  to  the  act,  murdered  Becket  in  his  own  Cathedral.  The  affection  in 
which  the  memory  of  the  martyr  was  held  by  the  people,  the  immense  riches  heaped  on  his 
shrine,  its  reputation  throughout  the  Middle  Age  all  over  Europe,  show  that  the  cause  which 
he  died  to  protect  was  dear  to  the  common  people. 

The  reig-n  of  Bichard  I.,  1189-1199,  was  more  that  of  an  adventurous  French  knight 
than  of. an  English  king.  He  was  called  Cceur  de  Lion  (the  lion-hearted).  His  adventures  on 
the  third  Crusade  belong  to  the  details  of  the  Crusades  rather  than  to  English  history.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John.    For  mention  of  Richard  I.  see  pp.  186, 195. 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    KINGS    OF   THE    13th    CENTURY. 

Jolin,  brother  of  the  foregoing  king A.  d.  (1199)-  1216 

Henry  III.,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1216  -  1272 

Edward  I.,     "  "  "         "      1272 -(1307) 

John  was  wicked,  bold,  and  enterprising.  These  traits  were 
apparent  in  his  treatment  of  his  nephew,  Arthur  of  Brittany 
(p.  190),  who  was  legal  heir  to  the  throne  as  son  of  John's  elder 
brother,  Geoffrey.  The  cause  of  Arthur  was  supported  by  PhiHp  II. 
of  France,  and  this  led  to  England's  loss  of  all  her  French  provinces 
but  Gascony  and  Guienne.  The  French  Normans  had  lost  sym- 
pathy with  their  kindred,  so  long  established  in  England,  and  they 
preferred  the  rule  of  the  French  king  to  the  rule  of  the  hated 
Anglo-French  Angevins.  The  Channel  Islands,  Alderney,  Jersey, 
and  Guernsey,  are  still  retained  by  England — a  relic  of  the  loss  of 
Normandy  under  John. 

The  Magna  Charta,  conceded  by  John  to  his  Barons  at  Run- 
nymede  in  1215,  was  wrung  fi'om  unwilhng  hands.  The  English 
Constitution  of  modern  times  looks  back  to  this  charter  as  its 
foundation.     The  complaints  of  the  Anglo-Norman  Barons  which 


366 


ENGLA  ND 


the  charter  was  granted  to  satisfy,  had  been  especially  caused  by 
the  favors,  offices,  and   estates  showered  by  the   Line  of  Anjou 

on  its  own  French  kin.  But 
Stephen  Langton,  Primate  of 
Canterbury  (appointee  of  Pope 
Innocent  III.)?  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  the  execution  of  the 
charter,  took  a  national  stand- 
point as  a  churchman  above 
the  discontents  of  the  feudal 
party,  and  used  it  to  assert 
the  personal  liberty  of  the 
subject  in  general. 

A  copy  of  the  ch.arter  still  hangs 
in  the  British  Museum,  injured  by  age  and 
fire,  but  with  the  royal  seal  still  hanging 
from  the  brown  shriveled  parchment.  "No 
freeman"  (ran  the  memorable  article  which 
lies  at  the  base  of  the  whole  English  judi- 
cial system)  "  shall  be  seized,  or  imprisoned,  or  dispossessed,  or  in  any  way  brought  to  ruin ; 
we  will  not  go  against  any  man,  nor  send  against  him,  save  by  legal  judgment  of  his  peers,  or 
by  the  law  of  the  land.  To  no  man  will  we  sell "  (runs  another  article)  "  or  deny  or  delay 
right  or  justice." 

Jolin  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  III.,  1216-1272.  Henry's  mother  had  remained 
in  Poitou  and  in  place  of  Angevin  favorites  England  was  now  overrun  by  Poitevin  favorites. 
The  king's  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Provence  had  also  given  rich  offices  to  French  Proven9al8. 
Henry's  disposition  was  easy,  his  tastes  refined.  The  Abbey  of  Westminster  dates  from  his 
reign.  The  same  disposition  to  rule  as  a  Frenchman  over  foreigners  exhibited  by  John  and 
Richard  continued. 

Beginnings  of  a  House  of  Commons.— Therefore,  as  in  the  reign  of  John,  the 
feudal  insubordination  of  the  Barons  coincided  with  the  national  English  interest.  This 
baronial  party  was  headed,  but  in  the  national  sense,  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester, 
son  of  the  Simon  de  Montfort  of  the  Albigensian  wars  (p.  190). 

Prom  his  summons  of  a  Parliament  in  1264  is  dated  the  germ  of  the  House  of  Commons,  two 
citizens  being  summoned  from  every  borough.  "  It  was  the  writ  issued  by  Earl  Simon  which 
first  summoned  the  merchant  and  the  trader  to  sit  beside  the  knight  of  the  shire,  the  baron, 
and  the  bishop,  in  the  Parliament  of  the  realm." 

•  With  Edward  I.,  1272-1307,  the  English  sovereign  first  be- 
came a  really  national  ruler.  Parliamentary  government  was  now 
so  far  established  that  statutes  of  this  reign,  if  unrepealed,  are  still 


Magna  Charta  Island,  near  Bnnnymede. 


THIRTEENTH    CENTURY, 


367 


valid  English  law.     The  organization  of  justice  and  of  government 
was  generally  amended.     In  addition  to  his  activity  as  administra- 


Choir  ot  Westminster  Abbey,  London. 

tor  and  organizer,  Edward  I.  accomplished  the  English  conquest  of 
Wales,  which  he  ruled  justly  after  conquest.  His  son,  afterward 
Edward  II.,  was  the  first  who  bore  the  title  "Prince  of  Wales," 
since  given  the  eldest  son  of  English  kings. 

Wars  with  Scotland. — The  reign  of  Edward  I.  is  also  distin- 
guished by  the  wars  with  Scotland,  continued  in  the  time  of  his 
successor,  Edward  II.,  and  finally  leading  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.  to  the  wars  with  France,  which  lasted  till  the  middle  of  the 
15th  century. 


368 


ENGLAND. 


Summary  of  Scotch  history  until  the  time  of  Edward  I.— After  the  time  when 
the  barbaric  Picts  had,  by  their  ravages,  brought  about  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  of  Britain, 

the  Irish  colony  of  "Scots  "  (p.  317), 
first  settled  in  Argyle,  had  gradually  in- 
creased in  territory  and  influence  until, 
with  Kenneth  McAlpine,  about  843 
A.  D.,  the  "  Scottish "  line  of  kings 
ruled  the  whole  territory  of  North 
Britain  as  far  as  the  borders  of  North- 
umbria.  This  territory  was  called,  in 
consequence,  "  Scotland."  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  kingdom  of  Northumbria  in- 
cluded the  Lowlands  of  modem  Scot- 
land, reaching  to  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow.  But  in  the  10th  century  the 
Lowlands  were  ceded  by  Dunstan, 
thus  fixing  the  Tweed  as  the  southern 
border  of  Scotland.  As  the  Scotch  (or 
Irish)  kings  now  controlled  a  country 
settled  by  Anglo-Saxons,  they  assimi- 
lated with  them,  and  relations  of 
friendship  were  cultivated  with  the 
Anglo-Saxons  of  England,  on  account 
of  the  mutual  hostility  toward  the 
Danes. 

After  the  Norman  conquest  of  Eng- 
land, the  daughter  of  the  Scotch  king, 
Malcolm,  who  had  married  the  sister 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Edgar  Atheling  (p.  363),  was  married  to  the  Norman  king,  Henry  I.  Friendly 
relations  were  consequently  cultivated  with  the  Anglo-Normans,  many  of  whom  gained  estates 
in  the  Scotch  Lowlands,    Among  these  Normans  were  the  families  of  Balliol  and  of  Bruce. 

During  a  revolt  of  the  barons  against  Henry  II.,  the  Scotch  king  William  the  Lion  took 
part,  and  was  made  prisoner  by  the  English  king.  To  gain  his  freedom,  William  consented 
that  the  Scotch  lords  should  pay  direct  allegiance  to  the  English  crown.  This  direct  feudal 
dependence  was  remitted  by  Richard  I.  for  a  sum  of  money,  but  a  theoretical  over-lordship  was 
still  conceded  to  England. 

The  Scotch  Succession.— Edward  I.  attempted  to  replace  the  theoretic  English  over- 
lordship  over  Scotland  by  direct  supremacy,  under  the  following  conditions  :  Alexander  III. 
of  Scotland,  dying  in  1290,  left  as  only  heir  his  grandchild,  the  daughter  of  a  Norwegian  king, 
hence  called  the  "  Maid  of  Norway."  It  had  been  arranged  that  she  should  marry  the  son  of 
Edward  I.,  but  her  death  on  the  voyage  to  Scotland  left  the  throne  vacant.  Of  thirteen  pre- 
tenders to  the  succession,  the  three  most  important  referred  their  dispute  to  Edward  I.  Pend- 
ing its  settlement,  he  occupied  Scotland  as  its  feudal  over-lord.  By  the  extinction  of  the  line 
of  William  the  Lion,  the  right  of  succession  passed  to  the  daughters  of  his  brother  David. 
John  Balliol  rested  his  claim  on  descent  from  the  first  of  these.  Robert  Bruce  was  descended 
from  the  second. 

Edward's  decision  in  favor  of  Balliol  was  accepted  by  Scotland,  bat  the  English 


Salisbury  Cathedral,  13th  centniy. 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY.  369 

king  proceeded  to  require  judicial  dependence  of  tlie  country  on  au  English  court  of  appeal. 
Foreign  military  service  from  tiie  Scotch  barons  was  also  demanded.  Balliol  first  consented, 
but  Scottish  sentiment  forced  him  to  retract  his  consent.  A  secret  alliance  with  Prance  em- 
boldened the  Scotch  to  take  an  attitude  of  open  defiance.  Balliol  refused  to  attend  Edward's 
parliament  and  besieged  the  town  of  Carlisle.  Edward's  answer  was  the  siege  of  Berwick  and 
massacre  of  its  citizens.  "  The  massacre  only  ceased  when  a  procession  of  priests  bore  the 
host  to  the  king's  presence,  praying  for  mercy,  and  Edward,  with  a  sudden  and  characteristic 
burst  of  tears,  called  off  his  troops."  Edinburgh,  Stirling,  and  Perth  opened  their  gates. 
Bruce  joined  the  English  army,  and  Balliol  himself  surrendered  and  passed  without  a  blow 
from  his  throne  to  an  English  prison. 

Williatn  Wallace.— The  disgraceful  submission  of  their  leaders  brought  the  people  them- 
selves to  the  front.  "  The  genius  of  an  outlaw  knight,  William  Wallace,  saw  in  their  smoulder- 
ing discontent  a  hope  of  freedom  for  his  country,  and  his  daring  raids  on  outlying  parties  of 
English  soldiery  roused  the  Lowlands  into  revolt.  The  instinct  of  the  Scotch  has  guided  them 
aright  in  choosing  Wallace  for  their  national  hero.  He  was  the  first  to  sweep  aside  the  techni- 
calities of  feudal  law  and  to  assert  freedom  as  a  national  birthright."  His  victory  near  Stirling, 
in  1297,  was  followed  by  the  defeat  of  Falkirk,  in  1298.  After  some  changes  of  fortune  Edward 
succeeded,  1305,  in  reconquering  the  whole  of  Scotland.  A  general  amnesty  was  extended  to 
all  who  had  shared  in  the  revolt.  The  execution  of  Wallace  was  the  one  blot  on  Edward's 
clemency. 

FOURTEENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    KINGS   OF   THE   14th   CENTURY. 

Edward  I.,  son  of  the  foregoing  king a.  d.  (1273)-1307 

Edward  II.,  ''     "     "  "  "    "       1307-1S37 

Edward  III.,  "    «     "  "  "     "      1327-1377 

Richard  II.,  grandson  of  the  foregoing  king "       1377-1399 

Robert  Bruce. — "Edward  was  preparing  for  a  joint  parliament  of  the  two  countries  at 
Carlisle,  when  the  conquered  country  suddenly  sprang  again  to  arms  under  Kobert  Bruce,  the 
grandson  of  one  of  the  original  claimants  to  the  crown.  The  withdrawal  of  Balliol  gave  new 
force  to  his  claims.  The  discovery  of  an  intrigue  which  Bruce  had  set  on  foot  so  roused 
Edward's  jealousy  that  Bruce  fled  for  life  across  the  border.  In  the  church  of  the  Grey  Friars 
at  Dumfries  he  met  Comyn,  the  Lord  of  Badenoch,  to  whose  treachery  he  attributed  the  dis- 
closure of  his  plans,  and  after  the  interchange  of  a  few  hot  words  struck  him  with  his  dagger 
to  the  ground.  Bruce,  for  very  safety,  was  obliged,  six  weeks  after,  to  assume  the  crown  in 
the  Abbey  of  Scone." 

The  new  Scotch  war  thus  begun  was  crippled  by  the  death  of  Edward  I.  in  1307,  and 
under  his  son  Edward  II.  the  English  lost  their  hold  on  Scotland.  The  battle  of  Bannockburn, 
1314,  was  the  decisive  victory  of  Bruce.  "  For  centuries  after,  the  rich  plunder  of  the  English 
camp  left  its  traces  on  the  treasure  and  vestment  rolls  of  castle  and  abbey." 

Edward  II.,  1307-1327,  lacked  the  force  of  his  father,  and  his  reign  is  filled  with  the  suc- 
cessful resistance  of  the  barons  to  the  rule  of  his  ministers  and  favorites. 

Under  Edward  III.  troubles  with  France  caused  the  final  abandonment  of  Scotland, 
in  1339. 


370  ENaLAND. 

Reign  of  Edward  III.,  1327-1377.— The  loss  of  Normandy, 
of  Brittany  and  other  provinces  under  John,  had  left  the  English 
kings  still  masters  of  part  of  the  inheritance  of  Eleanor  of  Acqui- 
taine;  of  Guienne,  Gascony,  and  the  Limonsin  (p.  195).  For 
these  provinces  the  English  kings  owed  feudal  homage  to  the 
French  sovereigns.  The  tendency  of  the  French  kings  to  absorb 
the  feudal  provinces  under  royal  government  thus  made  them  heredi- 
tary foes  of  England. 

The  Anglo-French  "Wars. — The  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
France  under  Edward  III.,  in  1339,  was  really  caused  by  this  French 
jealousy,  which  led  France  to  take  advantage  of  the  Scotch  wars  for 
acts  of  open  or  concealed  hostility.  Philip  IV.  had  seized  Guienne 
during  the  war  of  Edward  I.  in  Scotland.  Edward  III.  now  laid 
claim  to  the  French  throne,  but  his  claim  was  simply  a  form  of  de- 
claring war. 

Claim  of  Edward  HI.  to  the  French  Throne.— Edward  III.  was  jjrandson  of  Philip 
rv.  by  his  mother,  and  as  a  measure  of  war  claimed  the  French  throne  agaiiipt  Philip  VI.  (king 
since  1337),  grandson  of  Philip  III.  Philip  VI.  was  farther  removed,  but  on  account  of  being 
in  the  direct  male  line,  he  was  the  legal  French  heir.    (Genealogy,  p.  196.) 

Treaty  of  Bretigny. — Soon  after  the  brilliant  English  victory 
of  Crecy,  in  1346,  Calais  was  also  taken,  and  four  years  after  the 
English  victory  of  Poitiers,  in  1356,  the  treaty  of  Bretigny  was  con- 
cluded. By  this  treaty  the  English  claim  to  Normandy  and  Brit- 
tany, and  to  the  French  throne,  was  abandoned,  1360.  But  the 
possessions  of  Southwestern  France,  generally  comprised  under  the 
title  of  Guienne,  were  given  to  the  English,  not  as  feudal  fiefs,  which 
the}'  had  been  hitherto,  but  as  absolute  possessions  (map,  p.  200). 

Notwithstanding  this  treaty,  under  Charles  V.  the  Wise, 
successor  of  the  French  king  John  who  had  been  made  prisoner  at 
Poitiers,  the  French  national  spirit  renewed  the  war.  The  English 
were  practically  cleared  from  France  for  the  time  being.  Calais, 
Bordeaux,  and  Bayonne  alone  were  still  held.  The  Black  Prince, 
the  English  hero  of  the  wars  with  France,  died  before  his  father.  ' 

Richard  II.,  1377-1399,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  came  to  the 


FOURTEENTH    CENTURY.  371 

throne  just  at  the  moment  when  public  dissatisfaction  with  the 
disasters  abroad  was  aggravated  by  taxes  laid  to  prosecute  the  war. 
Thus  was  occasioned  the  popular  rising  under  Wat  Tyler,  1381. 
The  serfs  and  peasants  who  supported  this  revolt  had  no  hostility  to 
the  king  personally,  and  by  his  bold  and  shrewd  management  the 
insurrection  was  suppressed.  But  "  the  brilliant  abilities  which 
Eichard  II.  shared  with  the  rest  of  the  Plantagenets  were  marred  by 
fitful  inconstancy  and  a  mean  spirit  of  revenge."  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster, the  eldest  son  of  the  late  king's  brother  (John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster),  had  been  by  this  temper  unjustly  driven  into 
banishment.  For  the  expense  of  a  campaign  in  Ireland  (p.  329)  his 
inheritance  was  confiscated  at  the  death  of  his  father. 

Henry  of  Lancaster,  taking  advantage  of  Richard's  absence  in 
Ireland,  landed  in  Yorkshire  with  a  small  band.  This  rapidly 
■increased,  so  that  when  the  king  returned  to  England  his  cause  was 
already  lost.  The  personal  resentment  of  Henry  of  Lancaster  was 
supported  by  the  general  discontent  of  the  nation,  especially  excited 
by  Richard's  peace  policy  toward  France.  The  king  was  deposed  in 
1399,  dying,  probably  by  violence,  in  the  next  year. 

Civilization.—"  Gradually  the  higher  classes  became  more  refined.  The  use  of  spices  in 
cookery  gave  new  relish  to  their  food ;  glass  windows,  earthen  vessels,  coal  fires,  and  candle- 
light added  to  the  comfort  of  their  homes  ;  but  furniture  was  still  scanty.  The  use  of  tiles 
instead  of  thatch  improved  their  dwellings.  The  leading  merchants  dealt  in  wool.  Even  the 
kii)gs  did  not  disdain  this  trade.  The  value  of  money  is  shown  by  wages.  Haymakers  got  a 
penny  a  day;  carpenters,  twopence  ;  and  masons,  threepence.  The  courtiers  wore  a  coat  half 
blue,  half  white,  with  deep  sleeves;  trousers  reaching  to  the  knee,  stockings  of  different 
colors,  and  shoes  with  toes  so  long  that  they  were  fastened  by  golden  chains  to  the  girdle.  A 
close  hood  of  silk,  embroidered  with  strange  figures  of  animals,  enclosed  the  head.  The  ladies 
wore  a  towering  head-dress  like  a  mitre,  some  two  feet  high,  from  which  floated  a  whole  rain- 
bow of  gay  ribbons.  Their  trains  were  long ;  their  tunics  of  many  colors.  They  wore  two 
daggers  in  a  golden  belt,  and  rode  to  the  tournament  and  the  forest  on  steeds  of  fiery  spirit. 
The  tournament  was  still  the  first  of  sports ;  but  there  were  also  tilting  at  the  ring,  when 
knights  strove  at  full  horse-speed  to  carry  off  on  the  point  of  a  leveled  lance  a  suspended  ring, 
and  tilting  at  a  wooden  figure,  which,  swinging  on  a  pivot,  bore  with  outstretched  arm  a  wooden 
sword.  He  who  struck  fairly  in  the  centre  was  untouched ;  but  if  the  lance  struck  too  much 
on  one  side,  the  awkward  tilter  caught  a  sound  blow  from  the  wooden  sword  as  he  rode  past 
the  whirling  image  (p.  180).    The  great  pastime  of  the  lower  classes  was  archery. 


372 


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FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  373 

FIFTEENTH    CENTURY. 
ENGLISH    KINGS   OF  THE  Ioth   CENTURY. 

Henry  IV.  of  Lancaster A.  D.  1399-1413 

Henry  V.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1413-1432 

Henry  VI.,          '              "           "  1422-1471 

Edward  IV.,  of  York "  1 471-1483 

Edward  V.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1483 

Richard  III.,  uncle "              "        '•  1483-1485 

Henry  VII.  (Tudor  Line) "  1485-(1509) 

Henry  IV.  had  been  made  king  by  the  party  in  favor  of  war 
with  France,  but  various  revolts  during  his  reign,  especially  that  of 
the  Percies  (the  Earl  of  Northumberland  and  his  son  Henry  Hot- 
spur), and  of  Wales  under  Owen  Glendower,  kept  him  busy  at 
home. 

Henry  V.  took  up  the  war  which  was  needed  to  support  the 
popularity  of  the  House  of  Lancaster.  France  was  divided  by  the 
internal  party  quarrels  of  Orleanists  and  Burgundians  (p.  201). 
The  French  king,  Charles  VI.,  was  insane.  The  surrender  of  Acqui- 
taine  w^as  offered,  but  Henry  was  bent  on  the  reconquest  of  Nor- 
mandy. The  English  victory  of  Azincourt,  1415,  was  no  less  brilliant 
than  those  of  Crecy  and  Poitiers.  The  English  had  already  con- 
quered Normandy  when  the  assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
on  the  bridge  of  Montereau  (p.  203),  in  the  presence  of  the  Dauphin 
(whom  he  had  met  there  under  flag  of  truce)  threw  the  Burgun- 
dian  party  into  an  English  alliance.  Having  possession  of  the  mad 
king,  the  Burgundians  married  his  daughter  Catherine  to  Henry  V., 
declaring  him  French  regent  and  next  in  succession.  (Treaty  of 
Troyes,  1420.) 

Henry  VI.,  1422-1471,  but  nine  years  old  when  his  father 
died,  was  the  heir  of  these  pretensions,  and  was  afterwards  actually 
crowned  king  of  France  at  Paris.  In  this  closing  period  of  the 
Anglo-French  w^ars,  when  the  fortunes  of  France  appeared  at  low- 
est ebb,  the  heroism  of  Joan  of  Arc  and  the  new  national  spirit  of 


374  ENGLAND. 

the  French  freed  their  country  by  degrees  of  the  invader,  at  whose 
mercy  it  had  appeared  to  be.  In  1454  Guienne  was  finally  and 
entirely  lost  by  the  English.  Calais  was  the  only  remnant  of  their 
possessions  in  France. 

Rivalries  of  York  and  Lancaster.— The  unsuccessful  conduct  of  the  foreign  war 
created  a  discontent  at  home  which  found  an  outbreak  in  the  Kentish  rebellion,  headed  by 
John  Cade,  1450.  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset,  whose  maladministration  had  caused  this 
rebellion,  resumed  his  place  at  the  head  of  the  royal  council  after  its  force  was  spent.  In  the 
childlessness  of  the  king  this  Duke,  son  of  an  illegitimate  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  appeared  to  be 
aiming  at  the  crown,  although  excluded  from  succession  by  the  act  of  Parliament  which  recog- 
nized the  House  of  Lancaster.  His  ambition  was  favored  by  the  fact  that  the  regencies  0',\'ing  to 
the  minority  of  Henry  VI.  were  now  replaced  by  regencies  owing  to  incapacities  by  sickness. 

Tlie  Duke  of  York  opposed  the  ambition  of  Somerset.  He  was  son  of  Anne  Mortimer 
and  Kichard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  and  claimed  to  be  heir  presumptive  by  descent  from  Edmund 
of  Langley,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  (p.  373).  He  was  made  Protector  during  a  malady  of  the 
king  by  Parliament.  The  recovery  of  the  king  caused  the  restoration  of  Somerset.  A  struggle 
ensued  between  the  two  Dukes.  The  Duke  of  Somerset  (Edmund  Beaufort)  was  slain  at  St. 
Albans,  1455.    The  title  passed  to  his  brother  (John  Beaufort). 

Wars  of  the  Roses. — Meantime,  to  Henry  VI.  had  been  born 
a  son.  Hence  a  new  claim  of  the  Duke  of  York,  as  the  son  of 
Anne  Mortimer  and  descendant  of  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  second 
son  of  Edward  III.,  to  be  the  legitimate  king  instead  of  Henry  VI. 
(While  York  had  expected  to  succeed  the  king,  this  claim  to  sup- 
plant him  had  been  held  in  reserve.)  The  white  rose  was  the  badge 
of  York,  the  red  rose  the  badge  of  Lancaster.  The  contests  of  York 
and  Lancaster  are  therefore  known  as  the'*  Wars  of  the  Koses." 
Their  general  result  was  the  self-destruction  of  the  feudal  baronage 
of  England.     They  lasted  thirty  years,  from  1455  to  1485. 

With  Edward  IV.,  son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who  finally  sup- 
planted Henry  VI.  in  1471,  tlius  began,  by  this  self-destruction  of 
the  barons,  the  period  of  royal  absolutism  in  England.  Richard  III., 
1483-1485,  the  brother  of  Edward  IV.,  usurped  the  crown  at  his 
death,  but  held  it  only  for  two  years.  His  rule  was  statesmanlike, 
but  the  murder  of  his  nephews  (Edward  V.  and  his  brother)  in  the 
Tower  of  London  deprived  him  of  national  sympatliy.  Slain  in  the 
battle  of  Bosworth  Field,  1485,  he  gave  place  to  a  sovereign  who 
united  the  claims  of  York  and  Lancaster, 


FIFTEENTH    CENTURY 


375 


Henry  VII.,  1485-1509,  grandson  of  John  Beaufort,  Duke  of 
Somerset,  was  the  only  surviving  Lancasterian,  i.  c,  descendant  of 
John  of  Gaunt  (p.  372).  He 
married  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Edward  IV.,  thus  setthng 
all  difficulties  of  succession. 
The  use  of  artillery  gave  him 
complete  ascendency  over  feu- 
dal insubordination. 


Knights  of  the  15th  Century.  Dcsi^  of  the  period 


William  Caxton.— In  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  William  Caxton  introduced 
the  printing  press  into  England,  1476. 
Caxton' s  own  accounts  show  us  the  un- 
certainties still  existing  in  his  time  in 
the  use  of  English. 

"  Common  English  that  is  spoken  in 
one  shire  varyieth  from  another  so  much, 

that  in  my  days  it  happened  that  certain  merchants  were  in  a  ship  in  Tliames,  for  to  have  sailed 
over  the  sea  to  Zealand  and  for  lack  of  wind  they  tarried  at  Foreland  and  went  on  shore  for  to 
refresh  them.    And  one  of  them,  named  SheflSeld,  a  mercer,  came  into  a  house  and  asked  for 

meat  and  especially  he  asked  for  eggs.  And  the 
good  wife  answered  that  she  could  speak  no  French. 
And  the  merchant  was  angry,  for  he  also  could  speak 
no  French,  hut  would  have  had  eggs,  hut  she  under- 
stood him  not.  And  then  at  last  another  said  he 
would  have  eyren,  then  the  good  wife  said  she  un- 
derstood him  well.  Lo,  what  should  a  man  in  these 
days  now  write,  eggs  or  eyren  ?  " 

The  testimony  of  langraag-e  proves  that  the 
whole  period  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  Henry 
VII.  (1066-1485)  was  required  to  unite  the  Norman- 
French  and  Anglo-Saxons  in  the  nation  of  modern 
English.  Before  William  the  Conqueror  English 
was  Anglo-Saxon,  that  is  a  dialect  of  German  ap- 
proaching the  Dutch.  After  the  conquest  French 
was  long  the  only  language  of  polite  society  and 
literature.  Henry  11.  and  Richard  I.  did  not  know 
English.  The  amalgamation  of  the  two  tongues  was 
fairly  advanced  in  the  time  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury 
Tales  (14th  century),  hut  all  public  documents  were  in  French  tiU  the  time  of  Henry  VTE.  (They 
were  in  Latin  from  William  the  Conqueror  to  Henry  HI.) 

The  birth  of  English  literature,  as  regards  its  matter,  was  in  the  districts  bordering 
on  Wales.    Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (time  of  Henry  I.)  gave  to  England  the  stories  of  King 


Ladies'  Head-dies'* ,  15th  Century. 

{Elizabeth  WoodviUe,  wife  of 

Edward  IV.) 


376 


ENGLAND 


Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  fables  which  had  been  carried  to  Brittany  by 
fugitive  Britieh,  and  were  then  returned  to  Wales  (p.  307). 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    SOVEREIGNS   OF    THE   16th   CENTURY. 

Henry  VII.  (Tudor  Line)   A.  d.  1485-1509 

Henry  VIII.,  son  of  the  foregoing  "     1509-1547 

Edward  VL,    "      "     "  "         ''     1547-1553 

Mary,  sister  "     •*  "         "     1553-1558 

Elizabeth,  sister    "     "  '*        "    1558-1603 

Henry  VIII.,  1509-1547,  was  the  second  king  of  the  Tudor 
line.     This  line  is  so  called  from  Owen  Tudor,  a  Welsh  knight, 

who  married  the  French  widow 
of  Henry  VI.  and  was  paternal 
grandfather  of  Henry  VII. 

Period  of  Charles  V.— In  the  active 
development  of  the  16th  century  maritime 
discovery,  assisted  by  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, was  enlarging  the  conception  of  the 
world.  Italian  cultivation  was  spreading 
over  Northern  Europe.  The  art  of  print- 
ing was  widening  the  field  of  knowledge. 
Modern  State  governments  wer»  replacing 
the  disorderly  violence  of  feudal  institu- 
tions. England,  under  these  influences, 
played  her  part  in  the  wars  and  diplomatic 
controversies  of  the  period  of  Charles  V. 
and  Francis  I.  Her  alliance  was  alternately 
sought  in  the  quarrels  of  these  princes,  and 
her  importance  increased  from  this  position 
of  third  party  and  make-weight  in  Conti- 
nental affairs.  The  celebrated  tournament 
of  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  1520,  on 
occasion  of  an  alliance  between  Henry  VIH. 
and  Francis  I.,  indicates  the  general  luxury 
and  extravagant  display  of  the  time  and  its 
new  sources  of  wealth. 
The  contemporary  Lutheran  schism  now  exerted  an  unhappy  influence  over  England. 
Henry  VIII.  had  written  a  book  against  Luther,  for  which  Pope  Leo  X.  gave  him  the  title  of 
"Defender  of  the  Faith,"  nor  did  he  in  most  matters  of  Church  doctrine  appear  later  as  the  par- 


King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge ;  1479-1615. 


SIXTEENTH     CENTURY.  377 

tisan  of  novelty.  His  temper,  however,  was  stubborn,  and  he  did  not  distinguish  his  position 
as  an  almost  absolute  ruler  of  England— a  position  to  which  here  as  elsewhere  the  anti-feudal 
and  popular  tendencies  were  favorable— from  a  position  of  spiritual  insubordination  to  the 
Head  of  the  Church.  His  wife,  Catherine  of  Aragon,  was  a  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
of  Spain.    She  was  first  man-ied  to  Henry's  elder  brother  Arthur,  who  soon  after  died. 

The  Act  of  Supremacy. — A  Papal  dispensation  had  allowed 
Henry  to  marry  his  deceased  brother's  wife.  The  absence  of  male 
heirs  is  said  to  have  created  conscientious  scruples  in  the  king's  mind 
as  to  the  validity  of  such  a  marriage,  notwithstanding  the  dispensation. 
The  king,  however,  with  some  inconsistency,  did  not  doubt  that  a 
divorce  under  Papal  dispensation  would  be  valid.  This  he  could 
not  obtain.  A  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of  the  ladies  of  his 
court,  thus  led  Henry  VIII.  to  separate  his  kingdom  from  its  re- 
ligious subordination  to  the  Koman  Pontiff.  The  Act  of  Supremacy, 
1534,  made  the  English  sovereign  head  of  the  English  Church. 
Henry  did  not  hesitate  to  execute  the  death  penalty  on  those  who 
refused  to  swear  allegiance  under  the  new  forms — for  instance,  on 
Sir  Thomas  More,  his  former  minister,  "in  the  general  opinion  of 
Europe  the  foremost  Englishman  of  his  time." 

The  separation  of  Engrland  from  the  Roman  Church  was  prompted  by  the 
royal  anxiety  for  a  divorce,  and  had  nothinof  to  do  with  even  the  pretense  of  a  "  reformation," 
but  it  opened  the  doors  for  the  overthrow  iu  England  of  the  forms  and  of  the  faith  of  the 
Church.  For  the  time  being,  however,  the  death  penalty  was  inflicted  equally  on  those  who 
denied  Transubstantiation  and  on  those  who  denied  the  king's  supremacy. 

During  the  ascendency  of  Henry's  minister,  Thomas  Cromwell,  who  suc- 
ceeded Cardinal  Wolsey  (his  first  groat  minister),  the  suppression  of  monasteries  and  destruc- 
tion of  shrines  was  carried  on  with  ruthless  hand,  as  a  means  of  filling  the  treasury  of  a  king 
who  still  inflicted  the  death  penalty  for  denial  of  the  Real  Presence.  It  even  happened  that  a 
"  Sacramentary  "  (denier  of  Transubstantiation)  was  burned  with  the  wood  of  a  statue  from 
a  shrine. 

Throughout  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  the  Mass  was  retained,  although  a  year 
before  his  death  the  substitution  of  an  English  Communion  Service  had  been  proposed. 

After  the  execution  of  Anne  Boleyn  on  a  charge  of  infi- 
delity, Henry  had  married  Jane  Seymour,  who  died  after  the  birth 
of  a  son.  He  then  married,  successively,  Anne  of  Oleves,  from 
whom  he  was  divorced ;  Catherine  Howard,  who  was  beheaded  for 
infidelity,  and  Catherine  Parr,  who  outlived  him.      By  these  three 


378  ENGLAND. 

later  wives  he  had  no  children.  His  daughter  Mary  was  the  child 
of  Catherine  of  Aragon ;  his  daughter  Elizabeth  was  the  child  of 
Anne  Bolejn. 

Iid'^vard  VI.,  1547-1553,  was  a  youth  without  genius  or  de- 
cided character,  who  died  before  any  influence  in  the  government 
was  allowed  him.  England  was  governed  by  his  uncle  and  guardian, 
the  brother  of  Jane  Seymour.  The  "  Protector  "  owed  his  title  of 
Duke  of  Somerset  and  his  power  to  this  relationship.  From  his 
rule  dates  the  institution  of  the  Protestant  forms  of  worship  in 
England. 

The  Engrlish.  Reformation.— The  position  of  the  Protector  was  without  the  stability 
of  royal  hereditary  right,  and  required  a  party  support.  "The  hope  of  support  from  the 
Protestants  united  with  Somerset's  personal  predilections,  in  his  patronage  of  the  innovations 
[in  religion]  against  which  Henry  had  battled  to  the  last.  Priests  were  permitted  to  marry  ; 
the  new  Communion,  which  had  taken  the  place  of  the  Mass,  was  ordered  to  be  administered 
in  both  kinds;  an  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  the  Liturgy,  which  with  slight  alterations 
is  still  used  in  the  Church  of  England,  replaced  the  Missal  and  Breviary,  from  which  its  con- 
tents are  mainly  drawn,  1548.*  The  power  of  preaching  was  restricted,  by  the  use  of  licences, 
to  the  friends  of  the  Primate,  Cranmer.  While  all  counter  arguments  were  rigidly  suppressed, 
a  crowd  of  Protestant  pamphleteers  flooded  the  country  with  vehement  invectives  against  the 
Mass  and  its  '  superstitious '  accompaniments.  The  assent  of  the  nobles  about  the  court  was 
won  by  the  suppression  of  chantries  and  religious  guilds,  and  by  glutting  their  greed  with  the 
last  spoils  of  the  Church.  German  and  Italian  mercenaries  were  introduced  to  stamp  out  the 
wider  popular  discontent  which  broke  out  in  the  East,  in  the  West,  and  in  the  Midland  Coun- 
ties. The  Cornishmen  refused  to  accept  the  new  service, '  because  it  is  like  a  Christmas  Game.' 
Revolt  was  everywhere  stamped  out  in  blood ;  but  the  weakness  which  the  Protector  had  shown 
in  presence  of  the  danger,  and  the  irritation  caused  by  the  sanction  he  had  given  to  the  agra- 
rian demands  of  the  insurgents,  ended  in  his  fall.  He  was  forced  by  his  own  party  to  resign, 
and  his  power  passed  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  to  whose  ruthless  severity  the  suppression  of 
the  revolt  was  mainly  due.  The  change  of  governors,  however,  brought  about  no  change  of 
system.  The  rule  of  the  upstart  nobles  who  formed  the  Council  of  Regency  became  simply  a 
rule  of  terror.  All  that  men  saw  was  religious  and  political  chaos,  in  which  ecclesiastical 
order  had  perished,  and  in  which  politics  was  dying  down  into  the  squabbles  of  a  knot  of 
nobles  over  the  spoils  of  the  Church  and  the  Crown.  But  while  the  courtiers  gorged  them- 
selves with  manors,  the  treasury  grew  poorer.  The  coinage  was  debased.  Crown  lands  to  the 
value  of  five  millions  of  money  [i.  «.,  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars]  had  been  granted  away 
to  the  friends  of  Somerset  and  Warwick.  The  royal  expenditure  had  mounted,  in  seventeen 
years,  to  more  than  four  times  its  previous  totsdy— {Green's  **  Short  History  qf  the  Etiglish 
PeopUy    The  extracts  are  condensed  from  pages  864,  365,  866,  867.) 

*  "The  most  beaatifhl  portions  of  the  English  Prayer  Book  are  translations  from  the 
Boman  Breyi&rj,''—Froude''s  History  of  England. 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.  379 

In  the  reign  of  Mary,  1553-1558,  the  Catholic  worship  was 
restored  by  almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  Parliament,  and  the  author- 
ity of  the  Pope  over  the  English  Church  was  re-estabhshed.  But 
the  marriage  of  Mary  with  Philip  II.  of  Spain  roused  the  national 
English  jealousy  of  foreign  interference  and  damaged  her  personal 
popularity.  Her  reputation  with  later  times  has  been  much  injured 
by  her  persecution  of  the  Protestants.  Among  many  others  who 
suffered  death  by  this  persecution,  was  Archbishop  Cranmer,  who 
had  himself,  during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  inflicted  death  by  fire 
on  those  who  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

Calais,  the  last  English  possession  in  France,  was  lost  at  the 
close  of  this  reign,  1558  (p.  266). 

Lady  Jane  G-rey.— At  the  opening  of  Mary's  reign  the  Protestant  party  had  attempted 
to  revise  the  provisions  of  the  vi'ill  of  Henry  Vni.  regulating  the  succession.  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
grand-daughter  of  a  sister  of  Henry  VHI.,  had  been  proposed  in  her  stead.  The  ambition  of 
the  Protector,  Earl  of  Warwick  and  Duke  of  Northumberland  (who  succeeded  Somerset  in 
1549),  had  procured  the  marriage  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  with  one  of  his  sons,  Guildford  Dudley, 
and  the  signing  by  Edward  VI.  of  a  will  in  her  favor.  Lady  Jane  Grey  was  proclaimed  Queen 
by  Northumberland's  influence,  but  the  temper  of  the  people  rebelled  against  this  usurpation, 
Northumberland  was  obliged  by  public  sentiment  to  abandon  the  cause  of  hiB  daughter-in- 
law,  and  she  was  confined  in  the  Tower. 

A  second  rising,  headed  by  Lady  Jane  Grey's  father,  on  announcement  of  Mary's  proposed 
marriage  witli  Philip  II.,  caused  the  execution  of  the  unfortunate  lady,  and  of  the  lords  whose 
ambition  had  placed  her  in  a  false  position.  Her  learning  and  goodness,  and  her  own  inno- 
cence of  ambitious  designs,  have  excited  much  sympathy  for  her  unhappy  fate. 

Elizabeth,  1558-1603.— According  to  the  will  of  Henry  VIIL, 
Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  were  all  made  heirs  to  the  throne, 
and  the  latter  succeeded  her  sister  without  opposition.  She  had 
been  educated  in  the  Protestant  faith,  and  soon  after  her  accession 
the  Protestant  party  was  again  brought  into  power,  and  the  Prot- 
estant worship  was  re-established. 

Elizabeth  refused  the  title  of  Head  of  the  Church,  opposed  the  man-iage  of 
clergy,  and  favored  many  usages  of  Catholic  worship  which  were  obnoxious  to  the  Protest- 
ants, such  as  altars,  candles,  crosses,  and  images,  but  her  character  was  worldly,  her  predilec- 
tion for  Catholic  forms  a  matter  of  sentiment  rather  than  of  religious  feeling,  and  it  was  her 
policy  not  to  disaflfect  the  powerful  English  Catholic  party. 


380 


ENGLAND. 


The  acknowledged  legitimate  successor  of  Elizabeth 
was  Mary  Stuart;,  Queen  of  Scots,  grand-daughter  of  Henry  Eighth's 
sister  Margaret  (p.  372).  The  English  Catholic  party,  in  expecta- 
tion of  Mary's  succession,  viewed  with  less  repugnance  the  govern- 
ment of  Elizabeth. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  brought  up  in  France  ;  her  first 
husband  was  Francis  II.,  who  died  in 
1560  (p.  266).  She  then  returned  to 
Scotland  and  married  her  cousin,  Lord 
Darnley.  The  marriage,  made  for 
state  reasons,  was  an  unhappy  one. 
Darnley  murdered  Rizzio,  her  Italian 
State  Secretary,  in  Mary's  own  presence. 
The  mysterious  assassination  of  Lord 
Darnley,  and  Mary's  sudden  (perhaps 
compulsory)  marriage  with  his  pre- 
sumed murderer,  the  Earl  of  Both  well, 
were  followed  by  her  imprisonment  in 
Lochleven  Castle,  1567.  Thence  she 
fled,  in  1568,  to  England,  and  placed  herself  in  the  hands  of  Eliza- 
beth for  safety. 

For  eighteen  years  she  was  kept  in  captivity.  Being  not  only 
legal  heir,  as  all  conceded,  but  also,  in  view  of  Elizabeth's  illegiti- 
macy, the  legally  existing  queen  in  Catholic  estimation,  there  was 
every  probability  that  her  party  would  at  once  place  her  on  the 
English  throne,  if  she  were  allowed  her  freedom.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  Mary's  life  were  sacrificed,  there  would  no  longer  be  a  Cath- 
olic successor  in  prospect,  and  an  immediate  revolt  of  the  Catholic 
party  against  Elizabeth  was  then  to  be  expected.  Hence  her  long 
captivity.  But  this  captivity  was  a  constant  invitation  to  plots  and 
revolts  against  the  government,  and  to  this  state  of  things  she 
finally  became  a  victim. 

The  execution  of  the  Queen  of  Scots  in  1587  for  alleged 
complicity  in  the  "Babington"  conspiracy  was  the  signal  for  all 
the  disturbances  of  Elizabeth's  later  reign. 


Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
{From  a  portrait  of  the  time.) 


SIXTEENTH    CENTURY 


381 


The  sentence  reached  Fotheringay  on  the  "Tth  of  February.  Mary  listened,  as  it  was  read 
to  her,  with  an  unmoved  countenance.  "  My  lords,"  she  said,  "  the  day  has  arrived  at  last 
long  expected  by  me,  and  long  desired  ;  for  what  better  end  can  I  look  for  than  to  give  up  my 
life  for  my  faith  ?  Nevertheless,  as  to  the  death  of  the  Queen,  your  sovereign,"  she  continued, 
placing  her  hand,  as  she  spoke,  on  a  Testament  that  lay  on  the  table,  "  listen  to  my  last  words. 
I  call  God  to  witness,  I  never  sought  it,  T  never  imagined  it." 

The  Spanish  Armada.— The  rage  of  Elizabeth  at  the  agents 
who  had  obtained  from  her  the  death-warrant  against  Mary  has  been 
generally  viewed  as  hypoc- 
risy, or  as  a  feminine  and 
momen  tary  rem  or  se.  It  is 
more  likely  that  her  polit- 
ical foresight  as  to  the 
consequent  peril  for  her- 
self is  the  explanation. 
For  it  was  not  till  1588 
that  Philip  II.  despatched 
his  famous  Armada ;  al- 
though English  privateers 
had  harassed  Spanish  com- 
merce and  made  war  on 
tbe  Spanish  colonies  for 
over  twenty  years,  with 
Ehzabeth's  connivance, 
and  without  any  sort  of  apology  or  reparation.*  The  Armada  was 
destroyed  by  the  superior  sailing  qualities  of  the  smaller,  more  easily 
handled  English  vessels,  and  by  the  elements. 

The  Irish  Revolt. — But  no  sooner  was  the  danger  passed  than 
the  revolt  of  the  Irish  Cathohcs  absorbed  the  energies  of  EHzabeth 
(p.  332).  For  the  rest  of  her  reign  three-fourths  of  the  English 
annual  income  had  to  be  devoted  to  the  Irish  war. 

Elizabeth's  last  years  were  miserable  and  friendless.  She  had  refrained  from  mar- 
riage lest  the  birth  of  a  Protestant  heir  should  endanger  her  own  hold  on  the  throne  by  rousing 
the  Catholic  party  to  her  overthrow. 


English  Man-of-WiU- ;  16th  Century. 
(From  a  drawing  by  Holbein.) 


*  Detailed  accounts  of  these  piracies  in  Fronde's  "  History  of  England. 


382  ENGLAND. 

The  Elizabethan  period  of  English  Literature  boasts  the  names  of  Mar- 
lowe, Ben  Jonson,  Spenser,  and  Shakespeare. 

The  dramas  of  Marlowe  are  distinguished 
by  rugged  force  and  virile  power. 

Ben  Jonson  exhibits  in  his  dramas  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Latinity  of  Italian  classic  learning. 

Spenser's  Faerie-Q,ueen  shows  the  poetic 
word-capacities  of  English  speech  in  most  wonder- 
ful flexibility  and  rhythm. 

Shakesx>eare  combines  all  these  qualities  with 

his  own  matchless  human  comprehension  of  human 

grandeur  and  human  weakness. 

,      ,  ,    _.  Lord  Francis  Bacon  began  his  career  in  the 

Shakespeare  s  Globe  Theatre.  ^.  -  -r^,.    r.  x..    i    ..  i.  ■  •  ,i    ^ 

,  _  , ,  .      .  time  of  Ehzabeth,  but  belongs  more  especially  to 

{From  an  old  engrcmng.)  °  f        j 

the  time  of  James  I.,  when  scientific  pedantry  was 

beginning  to  replace  poetic  inspiration.    The  contributions  of  this  learned  man  to  philosophy 

are  more  highly  rated  by  his  countrymen  than  by  the  critics  of  continental  Europe. 

Civilization.—"  Brick  and  stone  were  beginning  to  be  used  in  the  houses  of  the  great, 
and  glass  windows  became  common.  The  poor  lived  in  hovels  made  of  wattles  plastered  over 
with  clay.  The  fire  was  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  and  the  smoke  escaped  through  a  hole  in 
the  roof.  This  was  the  case  in  all  houses  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VU.,  when  chimneys  began 
to  be  built.  The  floors  were  commonly  of  clay  strewed  with  rushes.  In  early  Tudor  reigns  a 
straw  pallet,  a  coarse  sheet  and  rug,  and  a  log  of  wood  for  a  bolster,  were  commonly  used. 
Tlie  man  who  lay  on  a  pillow  of  chaff  was  thought  luxurious.  Servants  lay  on  bare  straw. 
Before  Elizabeth  dishes  and  spoons  were  wooden ;  then  pewter  platters  and  silver  or  tin  spoons 
came  into  use  among  farmers  and  those  of  the  same  class.  About  1580  coaches  were  intro- 
duced: before  that  time  ladies  rode  on  a  pillion  behind  their  chief  servants,  whom  they  held 
by  the  belt. 

"  Hops  were  now  first  grown  in  England.  Cabbages,  cherries,  gooseberries,  plums,  apricots, 
and  grapes  might  now  be  seen  in  English  gardens.  Potatoes  were  brought  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake  from  Sante  F6  in  America.  They  were  introduced  into  Ireland  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
Raleigh  also  brought  tobacco  from  the  West  Indian  island  Tobago,  and  taught  the  English 
its  use. 

"  The  country  folk  wore  a  doublet  of  russet-brown  leather.  The  court  fashions  were,  like 
those  of  our  own  day,  always  changing.  Queen  Catherine  Howard  introduced  pins  f^om 
France  ;  and,  as  these  were  expensive  at  first,  a  separate  sum  for  this  luxury  was  granted  to 
the  ladies  by  their  husbands.  Hence  the  expression  'pin-money.'  The  farthingale  was 
introduced  from  Spain  in  Mary's  reign.  It  was  a  large  hooped  petticoat.  Ruffs  of  plaited, 
linen  were  worn  by  both  sexes  on  the  neck  and  wrists. 

"  During  this  period  the  ladies  often  joined  in  the  chase  and  shot  at  the  game  with  arrows. 
Hawking  was  beginning  to  decline,  for  the  gun  was  coming  into  use.  Bear-baiting  and  buU- 
baiting  were  sports  of  the  highest  in  the  land.  The  principal  country  sports  were  archery, 
foot-races,  and  various  games  of  ball. 

"  Christmas  was  the  great  season  of  sports.  From  the  sovereign  to  the  beggar,  all  England 
then  went  a-mumming  in  strange  dresses  and  masks.  May-day  was  another  festive  season  in 
Old  England.  Green  branches  were  pulled  immediately  after  midnight,  a  lord  and  lady  of  May 
were  chosen,  and  dances  were  kept  up  around  a  May-pole  crowned  with  flowers." 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  383 


IMPORTANT   DATES  OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY,  SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Act  of  Supremacy a.  d.  1534 

Demolition  of  Shrines "     1539 

Mass  abolished "     1548 

Shakespeare  born "     1564 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  executed "     1587 

Spanish  Armada * '     1588 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    SOVEREIGNS   OF  THE   17th   CENTURY. 

James  I.,  son  of  Mary  Stuart a.  d.  1603-1625 

Charles  I.,  son  of  the  foregoing "  1625-1649 

Commonwealth  (Oliver  Cromwell,  +1658) "  1649-1660 

Charles  II.,  son  of  foregoing  king "  1660-1685 

James  II.,  brother  of      "  "     "  1685-1688 

j  William  III.  of  Orange,  grandson  of  Charles  I...  "  1688-1702 

I  And  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II "  1688-1694 


James  I.  of  Englaiid  (and  VI.  of  Scotland),  the  son  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  and  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Damley,  was  the  first  of  the 
Stuart  line  in  England.  The  Presbyterian  Calvinists,  led  by  John 
Knox,  ruled  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  after  Mary's  flight  to  Eng- 
land. James  had  thus  been  brought  up  in  the  Protestant  faith.  His 
accession  marks  an  important  point  in  history — the  union  of  the 
Scotch  and  English  Crowns.  The  parliaments  of  the  two  na- 
tions were  not  united  till  a  century  later. 

James  was  a  pedant,  but  a  man  of  learning.  His  person  and 
manners  were  not  engaging,  but  he  was  not  lacking  in  shrewdness. 
It  was  said  of  him  that  he  was  the  wisest  fool  in  Europe. 

The  t'wo  great  features  of  James's  reign  are  the  American 
Settlements  and  the  development  of  a  "High-Church"  and  a 
"  Puritan  "  party. 

English  colonies  in  America. — At  the  opening  of  the  17th 


384 


ENGLAND. 


century  France  and  England,  whose  fishing  vessels  had  for  some 
time  visited  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  began  to  make  settle- 
ments in  America.  Captain  John  Smith  made  the  beginnings  of 
a  colony  in  Virginia  in  1606.  A  little  earlier,  1603,  the  French 
began  to  estabUsh  settlements  in  Canada,  and  a  little  later,  1620, 
the  English  began  to  settle  Massachusetts,  Ehode  Island,  and  Con- 
necticut. 

The  first  English  colony  sailed  from  Holland,  a  band  of 
Brownists  (Congregationahsts  or  Independents,  founded  by  Brown, 
reign  of  Elizabeth),  who  had  settled  there  for  free  worship.  But 
the  rapid  rise  and  increase  in  number  of  this  Plymouth  Colony 
resulted  from  the  persecution  of  the  English  Puritans  under  the  son 
and  successor  of  James. 


Charles  I.,  1625-1649,  inherited  from  his  father  the  division 

in  the  English  Church,  and  the 
theory  of  the  "  divine  right  of 
kings."  This  theory  was  neces- 
sary to  bolster  up  the  institution 
of  apolitical  Church  supremacy. 
No  sooner  had  the  English 
Church  come  into  existence  than 
sectarian  divisions  began  to  dis- 
turb it.  The  Puritans,  earnest 
but  often  uncultivated  people, 
often,  but  not  always,  from  the 
lower  orders  of  society,  were 
offended  by  the  hollowness  of 
the  forms  which  the  English 
High-Church  made  obligatory. 
The  Catholics  were  perse- 
cuted, but  Puritans  were  forced 
to  submit  to  external  forms 
borrowed  from  the  Catholic.    The  famous  Archbishop  Laud  modeled 


Costume  of  the  17th  century.    Henrietta  Maria, 
wife  of  Charles  I.    (P.  2?2.) 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  385 

the  English   Church   on   a  basis  closely  resembling  the  modern 
Eitualistic  Episcopal  ceremonial. 

Charles  I.  met  his  first  decided  repulse  in  his  attempt 
to  extend  this  Church  system  over  Scotland.  The  Scotch  Presby- 
terians refused  to  use  the  .English  Prayer  Book,  and  rose  in  arms. 
To  subdue  them  the  king  needed  armies  and  money.  To  procure 
this  money  he  resorted  to  methods  of  taxation,  by  "  ship-money," 
which  were  unusual  and  calculated  to  arouse  popular  discontent. 

Ship-money  was  a  tax  originally  levied  in  the  maritime  coun- 
ties for  coast  defense,  and  extended  by  Charles  to  all  England.  The 
House  of  Commons,  of  Puritan  tendencies,  seized  on  the  question  of 
money  supplies  as  a  means  of  crippling  the  king  in  his  religious 
policy.  This  parliamentary  opposition  was  strengthened,  supported 
and  magnified  by  the  Scotch  revolt. 

The  Bill  of  Rights,  1628. — Thus  was  forced  from  the  king 
his  consent  to  the  famous  Bill  of  Rights,  by  which  no  money  sup- 
plies could  be  raised  without  parliamentary  consent,  the  most  im- 
portant feature  of  the  modern  English  Constitution.  From  this 
moment  until  his  death,  Charles  I.  never  abandoned  his  attempts  to 
reverse  this  arrangement,  and  to  rule 
without  parliamentary  advice  and  sup- 
plies. 

Cavaliers  and  Roundheads. — 
Hence  his  wars,  supported  by  the 
"  Cavaliers,"  the  party  of  the  court 
aristocracy,  against  the  Parliament  and 
Puritan  party  of  the  "  Roundhertds  "  (so- 
called  from  their  cropped  hair — the 
Cavaliers  wore  the  hair  long).  These  coin,  with  Head  of  cromweii. 
wars,  between  1642  and  1649,  owed  their 

successful  issue  for  the  Puritan  party  to  the  military  genius  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  and  to  the  alliance  of  Scotland. 

The  Execution  of  Charles  I.  in  1649  v/as  the  result  of  a  long 
course  of  diplomatic  duplicity  and  double  dealing  on  his  part,  which 


386 


ENGLAND. 


convinced  the  Puritan  leaders  that  as  long  as  the  king  was  alive  he 
would  never  abandon  intrigue. 

It  need  not  weaken  our  sympathy  for  the  fate  of  the  king  to  understand  that  his  violent 
death  was  the  result  of  a  determined  conflict  between  two  irreconcilable  methods  of  govern- 
ment, the  Parliamentary  and  the  Absolute  form,  of  which  the  former  was  most  suited  to  the 
genius  of  the  English, 


The  Commonwealth,— Between  1G49  and  1660  the  govern- 
ment of  England  was  in  form  a  Commonwealth,  i.  e.,  a  Parlia- 
mentary Republic,  but  in  substance  it  was  a  despotism  under  Ohver 

Cromwell  (till  1658),  sup- 
ported by  a  strong  division 
of  public  sentiment.  The 
despotic  rule  of  Cromwell 
produced,  however,  a  new 
revolution  of  public  senti- 
ment after  his  death,  and  a 
restoration  of  the  Stuarts 
in  1660. 

The  Restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  1660-1685. 
— Experience  proved  that 
parliamentary  government 
could  not  exist  in  England 
without  a  king.  Hence  the 
compromise,  tacitly  made, 
by  which  the  Restoration  was  procured,  and  the  son  of  Charles  I. 
was  made  king.  From  the  Stuart  Restoration  dates  the  existence 
of  the  English  ''  Dissenters."  The  Puritan  clergymen  were  turned 
out  of  their  livings  to  the  number  of  two  thousand,  about  a  fifth  of 
the  English  clergy.  The  king's  own  temper  was  tolerant,  but  he 
was  controlled  by  the  Parliament  in  matters  of  religion.  A  Te^t 
Act  was  passed,  requiring  adhesion  to  the  Church  of  England  as 
condition  of  holding  civil  or  military  office. 


New  St.  Paul's,  London.    Begun  1675. 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  387 

The  character  of  the  king  was  frivolous,  and  yet  he  was  not  lacking  in  sense.    A 
courtier  suggested  as  an  epitaph  the  following : 

Here  lies  our  sovereign  lord  the  king, 
Whose  word  no  man  relies  on  ; 
Who  never  said  a  foolish  thing. 
And  never  did  a  wise  one. 

"  It  is  true,"  said  Charles,  "  my  deeds  are  my  ministers',  my  words  are  my  own." 

Charles  II.  never  defied  his  Parliament,  altliough  his  own 
tastes  and  policy  were  generally  in  opposition  to  its  tendencies.  His 
alliances  with  Louis  XIV.  and  French  sympathies  have  made  him 
generally  odious  to  English  historians.  Charles  died  in  the  Catholic 
faith,  although  he  never  openly  had  professed  it. 

James  II.,  1685-1688,  who  succeeded  his  brother,  had  publicly 
embraced  Catholicism  when  Duke  of  York.  He  was  a  man  of 
upright  but  cold  and  unsympathetic  nature.  His  absolutist  tenden- 
cies, hateful  to  the  nation  in  general,  and  exerted  without  reflection 
or  policy  in  the  Catholic  interest,  provoked  a  revolution  by  which 
the  Stadt-holder  of  Holland,  William  Prince  of  Orange,  obtained 
the  throne  of  England  for  himself  and  his  wife  Mary,  the  king's 
daughter.  James  attempted  to  regain  his  throne  with  Irish  assist- 
ance, but  was  defeated  in  the  Battle  of  the  Boyne,  1690. 

The  Revolution  of  1688  was  the  turning  point  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  modern  English  Constitution.  By  it  the  "  Habeas 
Corpus"  Act,  passed  in  1679,  and  violated  by  James  (the  act  which 
led  to  his  downfall),  became  a  recognized  feature  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. This  act  forbids  the  imprisonment  of  an  English  subject 
without  process  of  law.  But  the  most  important  change  was  that 
by  which  the  income  of  the  king  and  the  pay  of  the  standing  army 
were  made  dependent  on  the  annual  vote  of  the  Parliament.  An- 
nual parliaments  were  thus  made  necessary,  and  the  king  became 
dependent  on  them.  This  arrangement  soon  led,  in  following  reigns, 
to  another, — government  by  a  Ministry,  which  carries  out  the 
measures  of  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  which 
changes   with  the  change  of  this  majority.      Thus  the  stability 


388  ENGLAND. 

of  monarchy   was  united  with   the  mobility   of  popular  govern- 
ment. 

Science  and  Literature.— In  the  reign  of  Charles  11.  the  studies  in  Science  and  Natural 
History,  which  Bacon''s  Philosophy  favored,  made  great  progress.  The  name  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  1&42-1727,  represents  the  discovery  of  the  law  of  gravitation. 

In  this  reign  appeared  the  "  Paradise  Liost"  of  John  Milton,  the  poet  of  Puritan 
England.  His  poem  is  the  work  of  a  noble  and  high-minded  man,  whose  learaing  and  mastery 
of  poetic  form  were  remarkable.  Milton's  English  is  especially  pure  and  vigorous.  A  later 
poetic  contemporary  of  Milton,  living  over  into  the  18th  century  and  the  reign  of  Anne, 
was  John  Dryden. 

American  Colonies.— Throughout  the  whole  17th  century,  following  the  settlement  of 
Massachusetts  in  1620,  the  English  continued  to  gain  ground  in  America.  New  Hampshire, 
Connecticut,  Maryland,  Rhode  Island,  North  Carolina,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  South  Carolina 
and  Pennsylvania,  were  all  settled  in  the  17th  century. 

Conquest  of  Jamaica.— During  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth,  Jamaica  was  conquered 
from  Spain.    It  is  still  an  English  possession. 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE   SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Elizabeth  died.     James  I.  succeeds A.  d.  1603 

French  Settlements  in  Canada  after  this  date "  1603 

Gunpowder  Plot "  1605 

Captain  John  Smith  in  Virginia. "  1606 

Henry  rv.  of  France  assassinated.    Louis  XIII.  succeeds "  1610 

Shakespeare  died "  1616 

Thirty  Years'  War  began "  1618 

Puritans  in  Massachusetts "  1620 

Francis  Bacon  died '•  1626 

Bill  of  Rights "  1628 

Civil  Wars  between  Charles  I.  and  his  Parliament  after "  1642 

Peace  of  Westphalia "  1648 

Execution  of  Charles  I.    Cromwell  in  Ireland "  1649 

Restoration  of  Charles  n.    Majority  of  Louis  XR'" "  1660 

Great  Fire  of  London "  1666 

Molidredied "  1673 

Miltondied "  1674 

Habeas  Corpus  Act "  1679 

ComeUle  died "  1684 

Charles  n.  died.    James  11.  succeeds "  1685 

James  II.  replaced  by  William  in "  1688 

Battle  of  the  Boyne "  1690 

Racinedied "  1699 


SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.  389 


IMPORTANT    DATES   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY.    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Union  of  Scotch  and  English  Crowns A.  d.  1603 

Death  of  Shakespeare "  1616 

Bill  of  Rights "  1628 

Execution  of  Charles  I "  1649 

Restoration.     Test  Act '*  1660 

Habeas  Corpus  Act "  1679 

Revolution  of "  1688 


EIGHTEENTH     CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    SOVEREIGNS   OF  THE  18th  CENTURY. 

William  III.  of  Orange A.  D.  (1688H'J'02 

Anne,  sister  of  Mary "       1703-1714 

George  I.  of  Hanover **      1714-1727 

George  II.,  son  of  the  foregoing "      1727-1760 

George  III.,  grandson  of  George  II *'    1760-(1820) 

THE  STUABT  LESIB,  CONNECTED  WITH  WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE  AND  THE  HOUSE  Or  HANOVER. 

Henry  VII. 

Margaret. = James  IV.  of  Scotland. 

James  V. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots. =Henry  Stuart, 
-     IDa 


Lord  Damley. 


James  I. 

I 


Charles  I.  Elizabeth.  Frederick, 

!  I  Elector  Palatine, 


II  I  I  the  "  Winter  King." 

Mary.      Charles  n.       Anne  Hyde.  =  James  n.=Mary  of  Modena.        ' 

Sophia=Emest  Augustus 


William  III.  of  Orange.r=Mary.  Anne, 


of  Hanover. 


George  I. 
James  Francis  Edward  Stuart,  _,    I       __ 

The  "  Old  Pretender,"  George  II. 

1688-1766.  „  .         L„,  , 

I  Prince  of  Wales. 

Charles  Edward  Stuart,  „      I     .„ 

the  "  Young  Pretender,"  George  III. 

1720-1788. 


390  ENGLAND. 

William  IH.  owed  his  election  as  English  king  to  his  marriage 
with  James  II.'s  daughter,  to  his  own  descent  from  Charles  I.  whose 
daughter  Mary  was  his  mother,  and  also  to  his  position  as  head  of 
the  Protestant  party  in  Europe,  Since  France  was  allied  with  the 
cause  of  the  Stuarts,  it  was  necessary  for  England,  in  expelling  them, 
to  enter  the  anti-French  alliance  which  William  had  organized  be- 
fore becoming  an  English  sovereign  (pp.  255,  281).  William  III., 
on  his  part,  used  England  as  one  more  agent  in  his  continental 
schemes.  Hence  the  English  share  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, 1700-1713  (pp.  241,  254,  284). 

The  reign  of  Anne,  1702-1714,  is  distinguished  by  the  Legis- 
lative Union  of  Scotland  with  England — the 
union,  that  is,  of  the  parliaments.  This  queen 
inherited  the  policy  of  William  III.,  and  the 
English  share  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession begun  by  him. 

Lord  Marlborough,  whose  victories  of 
Blenheim,  Ramillies,  and  Malplaquet  are  famous, 
was  the  controUing  mind  in  EngHsh  politics  tiU 
his  loss  of   power  in  1711.     This  was  the  pre- 

Queen  Anne.  ^  ■'^ 

lude  to  the  Peace  of  Utrecht. 

The  conditions  of  this  peace  are  mentioned  at  pp.  256,  284, 
— among  them  the  English  acquisition  of  G-ibraltar,  the  key 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  therewith  the  naval  ascendency  in  the 
Mediterranean,  which  England  has  always  since  retained.  By  the 
same  treaty  France  abandoned  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts  and  recog- 
nized the  Hanoverian  Succession.  This  was  already  in  prospect 
through  the  failing  health  of  Anne  and  the  absence  of  direct  heirs. 

By  an  Act  of  Settlement,  made  in  1701,  the  succession  was 
to  pass  from  Mary  and  Anne,  in  default  of  heirs,  to  the  House  of 
Hanover.  A  daughter  of  James  I.  had  married  the  Elector  Palatine  of 
Germany  (the  Winter  King,  p.  247).  The  daughter  of  this  marriage 
became  the  wife  of  a  Hanoverian  Elector,  Ernst  August,  and  the 
mother  of  the  Hanoverian  English  king  George  I.   (See  Genealogy. ) 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  391 

The  party  divisions  of  "Whigs"  and  "Tories"  now  first 
became  prominent.  Tlie  Tories  affected  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts,  as 
the  cause  of  legitimacy  and  hereditary  right.  Tlie  Whigs  were  the 
moderates,  the  supporters  of  the  existing  order  and  of  the  Hanoverian 
succession.  In  later  times,  when  the  Stuart  cause  was  no  longer  in 
question,  the  names  were  still  retained.  In  our  own  time  the  Tories 
are  supposed  to  represent  the  strict  conservative  ideas  and  reaction- 
ary tendencies ;  the  Whigs  are  the  moderate  liberals. 

George  I.,  1714-1727,  Elector  of  Hanover,  united  a  German 
principaUty  with  an  English  kingdom — a  union  which  continued  till 
the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  (1837),  and  which  largely  explains 
the  later  continental  wars  of  England  down  to  the  time  of  Bona- 
parte. 

G-eorge  II.,  1727-1760,  was,  like  his  father,  German  in  tastes 
and  nature,  caring  little  for  England,  and  content  to  play  the  role 
of  a  constitutional  king  controlled  by  his  ministry.  For  twenty- 
one  years,  1721-1742,  England's  government  was  managed  by  the 
great  Whig  Minister,  Sir  EoJDcrt  Walpole. 

Walpole's  policy  was  to  assist  agriculture,  commerce  and 
manufactures  by  keeping  the  country  at  peace.  His  rule  was  as 
uneventful  as  it  was  conducive  to  prosperity.  But  this  prosperity 
made  England  grasping  and  ambitious.  Her  merchants  were  jealous 
of  the  riches  to  be  derived  from  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies, 
from  which  they  were  excluded  by  the  general  colonial  policy  of  the 
time.  Thus  Walpole  was  finally  driven  from  power,  in  1742,  by  a 
war  party  which  had  already,  in  1739,  forced  the  country  to  declare 
war  on  Spain. 

The  War  on  Spain.— After  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  both  Spain  and  France  were 
governed  by  the  French  Bourbon  family.  Although  these  countries  were  sometimes  at  vari- 
ance, their  eympathies  were  generally  allied,  especially  in  questions  of  their  foreign  colonies. 
England  was  jealous  of  the  French  settlements  in  Canada  and  of  French  enterprise  in  develop- 
ing the  territories  reaching  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  war 
on  Spain  indicated  a  general  colonial  policy  of  attack  on  the  possessions  of  the  Bourbons. 

War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  1740-1748.— The  declaration  of  war  on  Spain  in 
1739  was  followed  in  1740  by  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (p.  256),  and  England,  already 
involved  in  broil,  could  not  preserve  the  neutrality  which  Walpole  had  proposed.    Since  Eng- 


392  ENGLAND. 

land  was  the  rival  of  France  and  Spain,  she  was  the  natural  ally  of  Maria  Thereat.  By  Eng-^ 
land's  advice  Silesia  was  ceded  to  Frederick  in  1742  (p.  257),  thus  disposing  of  one  enemy. 
English  subsidies  gave  victory  to  the  Austrian  armies  elsewhere.  But  after  the  fall  of  Walpole 
(in  1742),  who  had  opposed  the  policy  of  war  in  general  and  confined  himself  to  the  protection 
of  the  Austrian  power,  England,  in  alliance  with  Austria,  changed  to  a  general  policy  of  attack 
on  the  French  and  Spanish  Bourbons. 

The  success  of  the  English-Hanoverian  and  Austrian  alliauce  threatened  so  great  an 
aggi-andizement  of  Austria,  that  Frederick  in  1744  allied  himself  with  France,  while  Austria 
combined  with  Russia  for  the  partition  of  Prussia.  In  1745  the  French,  to  ciipple  England, 
aided  a  landing  of  the  Stuart  Pretender,  Charles  Edward,  gi'andson  of  James  IT.,  in  Scotland. 
Although  a  victory  at  Preston  Pans,  won  by  his  Highlanders,  and  a  second  victoiy  at  Falkirk, 
in  1746,  had  no  results  (his  expedition  into  England  was  a  failure),  England  was  forced  by  this 
attack  in  fhe  rear  to  ally  herself  w  ith  Frederick  of  Prussia  and  to  withdraw  from  the  alliance 
with  Austria.  Thus  was  vindicated  Walpole's  previous  policy  of  peace  with  France,  which 
had  protected  England  from  the  attacks  of  the  Stuarts.  The  war  on  the  Continent  ended  in 
1748,  with  a  mutual  restoration  of  conquests,  in  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  between  France 
and  Austria,  Frederick  retaining  Silesia. 

The  Seven  Years'  War. -This  peace  was  really  a  truce  only.  Spain  and  France,  joined 
in  a  "  family  compact,"  were  now  aroused  by  the  hostility  of  England  to  anticipate  further  at- 
tacks. By  a  sudden  turn  of  policy,  Austria,  no  longer  threatened  by  these  countries,  joined 
with  them  as  a  means  of  recovering  Silesia.  Thus  the  interest  of  Prussia  to  hold  Silesia 
against  Austria,  united  with  the  interest  of  England  to  supplant  the  Spaniards  in  their  own 
colonial  commerce  and  to  resist  the  progress  of  France  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  From  the  Missis- 
sippi French  traders  had  worked  up  the  basin  of  the  Ohio  ;  and  the  crest  of  the  Alleghanies 
now  set  a  bound  to  the  previously  undefined  limits  on  the  west  of  the  English  American  colo- 
nies.   Thus  came  about  the  outbreak  of  a  war  in  America  which  set  the  whole  of  Europe  in 


The  beginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  1756-1763,  was  the  English  expedition  under 
(Jeneral  Braddock  against  the  French  post,  Fort  Duquesne,  established  at  the  fork  of  the 
Alleghany  and  the  Monongahela  where  they  join  in  the  Ohio.  The  name  of  Pittsburg,  on  the 
site  of  Fort  Duquesne,  commemorates  the  activity  of  the  minister,  William  Pitt  (the  Earl  of 
Chatham),  who  now  directed  the  destinies  of  England. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  Prussia,  supported  by  the  money  of  England,  contended  against 
the  coalition  of  France,  Saxony,  Austria,  and  Russia  (p.  257).  The  withdrawal  of  Russia  from 
this  alliance  at  a  critical  moment  saved  Prussia,  and  the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg,  1763,  once  more 
secured  to  her  the  possession  of  Silesia.  By  the  peace  of  the  same  year  at  Paris,  Spain  ceded 
Florida  to  England  (a  cession  not  permanent),  and  France  ceded  to  Engrland  Canada 
and  the  Mississippi  Basin— (to  Spain  her  claims  west  of  the  Mississippi).  France  aban- 
doned all  right  to  military  settlements  in  India. 

British  Empire  in  India.— From  this  Seven  Years'  War  dates,  therefore,  the  British 
Empire  in  India,  founded  by  Robert  CUve. 

In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  an  East  India  trading  company  had  been  organized,  but  during  the 
century  following,  only  three  small  trading  posts  had  been  acquired— Madras,  Bombay,  and 
Calcutta.  During  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  the  French,  at  this  time  more  powerful 
in  India  than  the  English,  attempted  to  expel  the  latter.  Clive,  who  was  a  clerk  of  the  Eng- 
lish Trading  Company,  entered  its  military  force,  and  overthrew  the  French  ascendency  in 
Southern  Hindoostan.    Recalled  by  ill-health  to  England,  he  returned  to  India  at  the  opening 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY 


393 


of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  by  the  victory  of  Plassey,  in  1757,  gave  the  East  India  Company 
the  practical  mastery  of  Bengal.  In  1760  he  established  securely  the  English  influence  in 
Southern  Hindoostan. 

In  1773,  Warren  Hastings,  a  clerk  promoted  by  Clive,  was  made  Governor-General  of  India, 
and  by  his  conquests  and  combinations  laid  the  foundation  of  British  rule  over  the  whole 
country. 

George  III.,  1760-1820,  was  grandson  of  the  last  king. 
The  peace  of  1763  had  been  owing  to  the  new  king's  opposition  to 
the  military  ardor  of  Pitt.  George  III.  was  a  man  of  narrow  char- 
acter but  upright  intentions.  His  personal  prejudices  had  much  to 
do  with  the  next  important  feature  of  English  history — the  loss  of 
the  American  colonies. 

The  most  important  cause  of  this  separation  was  the  cession 
to  England,  in  1763,  of  the  French  American  territories,  as  result 
of  the  Seven  Years*  War.  As  long  as  the  French  territory  hemmed 
in  the  English  Americans  on  the  north  and  west,  and  French  power 
could  unite  the  Indian  tribes  against  the  English  colonies,  these 
felt  the  need  of  English  assistance  and  protection.  Relieved 
from  this  pressure,  the  colonies  were  able  to  stand'  alone,  and 
accordingly  assumed  the  independent  attitude  in  opposition  to 
British  taxation  which  brought 
about  the  American  Revolution, 
1775-1783.  (The  more  obvious 
and  direct  causes  generally  men- 
tioned are  suflBciently  known.) 

The  American  Revolu- 
tion.— Once  more  the  earlier 
hostility  of  England,  after  Wal- 
pole's  time,  to  the  French  and 
Spanish  Bourbons  had  here  its 
effect.  It  was  the  alliance  of 
France  and  Spain,  after  1778, 
with  the  American  colonies  that 
turned  the  balance  in  their  favor 
and  secured  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.     The  naval 


William  Pitt,  1759-1806. 


394  ENGLAND. 

victories  of  Admiral  Rodney  saved  England  any  further  humiliation 
in  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1783,  than  the  loss  of  the  American  colonies. 
Florida  was  re-ceded  to  Spain. 

By  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  in  1789, 
which  owed  at  least  its  external  impulse  to  the  rise  of  the  American 
Republic,  England  was  drawn  into  a  new  series  of  Continental  wars. 
The  second  William  Pitt,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  was  the  great 
English  minister  at  this  time.  Some  mention  of  these  wars  will  be 
found  in  the  sections  relating  to  the  French  Revolution  and  to 
Bonaparte.  The  sections  for  the  contemporary  Irish  history  will 
also  be  supplementary  for  this  period.  The  reign  of  George  III. 
continued  beyond  the  limits  of  the  century. 

Literature.— The  18th  century  is  a  distingnished  one  in  English  literature.  The  poet 
Dryden  has  been  already  mentioned.  Dean  Swift  was  a  vigorous  controversial  writer. 
The  "Spectator"  essays  of  Addison  and  Steele  are  still  quoted  for  their  good  diction. 
Pope,  as  a  poet,  well  represents  the  general  character  of  his  time,  refined  but  artificial.  These 
names  belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  century,  to  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  George  I.  In  the 
middle  period  of  the  century  flourished  Daniel  Defoe,  author  of  "  Kobinson  Crusoe  ";  Bich- 
ardson  and  Fielding,  the  novelists ;  Dr.  Johnson,  essayist  and  critic ;  Oliver  Gold- 
smith, poet  and  dramatic  author ;  and  Laurence  Sterne.  To  the  latter  part  of  the  century 
belong  the  historians  Robertson,  Hume,  Gibbon,  the  political  economist  Adam  Smith. 

The  Methodists.-  From  the  year  1738,  when  John  Wesley  became  widely  active  as  a 
preacher,  dates  the  rise  of  the  Methodists.  "  Wesley  considered  himself  a  member  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  the  body  he  had  formed  as  a  lay  society  dependent  on  it."— Green. 

John  Howard,  philanthropist  and  prison  reformer,  was  active  after  1774. 

The  steam-engine  was  developed  into  a  practical,  mechanical  force  by  James  Watt  in 
1765. 

GENEALOGY  OP  THB  HANOVERIAN  LINE  {CorUintied^ 

George  I. 
Georffc  II 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales. 
George  III. 

George  IV.          William  IV.          Etlward, = Victoria  of  Saxe-Coburg.  Ernest  Augustus, 

Duke  of  Kent.  Duke  of  Cumberland 

I  King  of  Hanover  af  tej 

Prince  Albert      :r^r=r     Queen  Victoria.  1837  till  1851. 

of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  I  ,„  L  „ 

I  George  IV.  of  Hanover, 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  _    Died  1878. 

born  1841.  (Hanover  conquered 

'  ^  by  Prussia,  1866.) 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  39£> 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  ENGLISH   HISTORY  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  begins a.  d.  1700 

William  III.  died.    Anne  succeeds  "  l'<^02 

Union  of  Scotch  and  English  parliaments "  1707 

Peace  of  Utrecht.    Gibraltar  to  England.    France  abandons  the  Stuarts "  1713 

Anne  died.    George  I.  of  Hanover  succeeds "  1714 

Walpole's  ascendency  till  1742,  after. "  1721 

George  I.  died.    George  II.  succeeds "  1727 

War  on  Spain  declared "  1'''39 

England  leagued  with  Austria  till  the  Pretender's  invasion "  1746 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Conquests  mutually  re-exchanged,  but  Prussia  keeps  Silesia.  "  1748 
Seven  Years'  War.    England  supports  Prussia  on  the  Continent.    Contests  French 

ascendency  in  India  and  America,  after ••  "  1756 

Peace  of  Hubertsburg  and  Peace  of  Paris.    England  gains  Canada  and  the  Mississippi 

and  Ohio  Basins,  and  founds  her  power  in  India "  1763 

War  with  the  American  colonies "  1775 

Peace  of  Paris.    England  loses  the  American  colonies "  1783 

England  heads  the  European  Coalitions  against  France  till  1815,  after "  1793 


IMPORTANT   DATES   REHEARSED. 

Peace  of  Utrecht.    End  of  the  Spanish  Succession  War A.  D.  1713 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.    End  of  the  Austrian  Succession  War "    1748 

Peace  of  Paris  and  Hubertsburg.    End  of  the  Seven  Years' War "    1763 

Peace  of  Paris.    End  of  the  American  Revolution "    1783 

England  heads  the  Coalitions  against  Prance "    1793 

NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 

ENGLISH    SOVEREIGNS    OF  THE  19th  CENTURY. 

George  III A.  d.  (1760)-1820 

George  IV "     1820-1830 

William  IV *'     1830-1837 

Victoria "     1837 

The  English  Sovereigns.— The  reign  of  George  III.  lasted 
nominally  till  1820,  but  attacks  of  insanity  made  it  necessary,  in 
the  later  part  of  his  reign,  to  establish  a  Regency  of  his  son.  This 
son  succeeded  as  George  IV.  in  1820,  reigning  till  1830.  His 
brother,  William  IV.,  followed,  reigning  till  1837^ 


396 


ENGLAND 


Houses  of  Parliament,  London. 


Queen  Victoria,  his  successor,  was  daughter  of  the  third 

son  of  George  III.,  the 
^  0^^  Duke    of   Kent.       The 

fourth  son  of  George 
III.,  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, became  king  of 
Hanover  at  her  accession, 
thus  separating  Hanover 
from  England.  In  1866 
Hanover  was  conquered 
by  Prussia,  and  united 
with  this  State  (p.  299). 
The  important  features 
of  England's  internal 
history,  in  the  early  19th  century,  were  Catholic  Emancipation,  and 
the  reform  of  the  Representative  system.  For  England's  share  in 
Continental  history  at  this  time,  see  pp.  293-297. 

Measures  of  Reform. — The  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill,  ad- 
mitting Catholics  to  seats  in  Parliament,  was  passed  in  1829,  It 
had  been  long  deferred  by  the  personal  opposition  of  George  III. 
In  1832  the  Reform  Bill  broke  down  the  so-called  rotten-borough 
system.  By  this  system  many  of  the  largest  towns  had  been  left 
without  representatives,  while  places  which  had  lost  their  impor- 
tance and  population,  or  which  had  been  given  members  because 
they  could  be  controlled  by  personal  influence,  were  allowed  seats 
in  the  House  of  Commons. 

Foreign  Events. — The  close  of  the  wars  with  Napoleon,  after 
1815,  left  England  at  peace  until  1853,  when  she  leagued  with 
France  to  support  Turkey  against  the  attacks  of  Russia.  This 
war  in  the  Crimea,  begun  1854,  ended  in  a  triumph  for  the  allies, 
1856.  It  was  followed  in  1857  by  a  mutiny  in  India  of  the  native 
troops  in  English  pay  (Sepoys).  After  the  suppression  of  the 
revolt  the  government  of  India  was  transferred  frpm  the  East  Indi^ 
Company  to  the  English  sovereign. 


NINETEENTH    CENTtJRY.  397 

A  new  Reform  Bill,  passed  by  Mr.  Disraeli  (later,  Earl  of 
Beacousfield)  in  1867,  extended  the  franchise  by  conditions  which 
admitted  large  numbers  of  the  working  classes.  For  the  later 
Reform  Bill  of  Mr.  Gladstone  see  Irish  history. 

The  year  1850  witnessed  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  Hier- 
archy of  England,  and  two  years  later  the  first  provincial  synod  of 
the  English  bishops  was  held  at  the  College  of  Oscott. 

The  most  important  features  of  English  history  in  the  19th  century  are  her 
immense  manufacturing  and  commercial  prosperity,  and  tlie  power  of  her  colonial  empires  in 
India,  Australia,  and  Canada. 

On  the  other  hand,  sources  of  constant  expense  and  annoyance  are  found  in  small  foreign 
wars  with  barbarous  nations  to  "preserve  the  prestige"  of  the  British  crown.  Recent  wars 
with  Abyssinia,  with  Dahomey,  and  with  the  Dutch  Boers  of  South  Africa,  come  under  this 
head. 

A  second  source  of  trouble  lies  in  the  English  jealousy  of  Russian  advance  in  Asia,  where 
the  Russians,  in  approaching  the  boundaries  of  India,  are  supposed  to  threaten  the  security 
of  the  Indian  Empire.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  if  the  Hindoos  should  become  seriously  dis- 
affected, a  foreign  European  power  on  the  frontier  would  tend  to  promote  trouble. 

The  third  cause  of  trouble  for  England  lies  in  the  agitation  and  dissatisfaction  of  her  Irish 
subjects.    The  sources  of  this  dissatisfaction  are  indicated  in  the  Irish  history. 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  ENGLISH  HISTORY  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Slave-trade  abolished a.  d.  1807 

Battle  of  Waterloo.    English  participation  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna "  1815 

Death  of  George  HI "  1820 

First  Steamboat  on  the  Thames "  1823 

Catholic  Emancipation "  1829 

Death  of  George  IV "  1830 

First  Railway  opened "       " 

Reform  Bill "  1832 

Slavery  abolished  in  the  Colonies "  1833 

Death  of  William  IV.    Accession  of  Queen  Victoria "  1837 

Penny  Post "  l&iO 

Electric  Telegraph  first  practically  worked "  1847 

Catholic  Hierarchy  restored "  1850 

First  Great  Exhibition "  1851 

Crimean  War,  1854  to "  1856 

Sepoy  Rebellion ' "  1857 

Submarine  Telegraph  to  America "  1858 

Extension  of  the  Franchise  by  Disraeli "  1867 


398  ENGLAND, 


GENERAL  QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  EXERCISE  ON  ENGLISH  HISTORY. 

FIRST   REVIEW   LESSON. 

What  German  Principality  was  separated  from  English  rule  by  the  accession  of  Qneen 
Victoria  ? 

When  was  Hanover  united  with  England  ?    (P.  391.) 

What  large  increase  of  territory  had  Hanover  obtained  about  that  time  ?    (P.  262.) 

Who  was  the  founder  of  the  House  of  Hanover  ?    (Pp.  161, 162.) 

By  what  relationship  did  the  House  of  Hanover  obtain  the  English  crown  ?    (P.  389.) 

Name  the  English  sovereigns  of  the  House  of  Hanover  ? 

Name,  by  reference  to  the  table  (p.  397)  or  otherwise,  important  events  in  the  reign  of  Vic- 
toria ?    In  the  reign  of  George  IV.  ?    Of  George  HI.  ?    Of  George  II.  ? 

When  did  George  I.  begin  his  reign  ? 

Who  was  the  last  of  the  Stuart  sovereigns  ?    (P.  390.) 

When  did  she  die  ?    (P.  389.) 

Whose  daughter  was  she  ? 

Who  preceded  her  ? 

What  was  the  foreign  policy  of  her  predecessor?    (P.  390.) 

When  was  the  Dutch  Republic  founded  ?    (P.  246.) 

What  important  war  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  ? 

What  did  England  obtain  by  the  Treaty  of  Peace  ?    (Pp.  390,  284.  260.) 

What  did  she  gain  by  the  Seven  Years'  War  ?    (P.  392.) 

What  influence  had  this  gain  in  promoting  the  American  Revolution  ?    (P.  393.) 

Where  was  the  beginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  ?    (P.  392.) 

What  Continental  power  was  at  this  time  allied  with  England  ? 

How  far  was  Hanover  (Brunswick-Lflneburg)  from  Prussia  ?    See  map  for  1748,  p.  256. 

What  province  was  Austria  endeavoring  to  reconquer  from  Prussia  ?    (P.  257.) 

In  what  war  was  England  the  ally  of  Austria  ?    (P.  391.) 

Why  did  she  abandon  this  alliance  ?    (P.  392.) 

When  did  the  Stuart  Pretender  land  in  England  ?    (P.  392.) 

Why  had  Walpole  favored  an  alliance  with  France  ?    (P.  392.) 


SECOND  REVIEW  LESSON. 

In  whose  reign  did  Walpole's  ministry  begin  ?    (P.  391.) 

What  colonial  policy  did  England  pursue  after  his  time  ?    (P.  391.) 

Who  assisted  the  American  colonies  to  obtain  independence  ?    (P.  893.) 

When  were  the  American  colonies  first  settled  by  the  English  ?    (P.  384.) 

Why  did  they  grow  rapidly  by  later  emigration  ?    (P.  884.) 

In  whose  reign  ? 

Who  was  the  first  Stuart  king  of  England  ?    (P.  888.) 

What  are  the  most  important  events  of  his  reign  ? 

Why  did  an  English  party  oppose  the  government  of  Charles  I.  ?    (P.  384.) 

Why  did  he  need  money  ? 

Why  was  the  Bill  of  Rights  passed  f    When  ? 


QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE.         399 

What  is  the  date  for  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  ?  (P.  250.)  For  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  ? 
For  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV  ?    (P.  276.) 

What  French  sovereign  was  the  contemporary  of  Charles  11.  ?    (P.  276.)    Of  James  II  ? 

What  battle  defeated  the  effort  of  James  II.  to  regain  his  throne  ?    (P.  387.) 

What  feature  of  the  English  Constitution  dates  from  the  time  of  William  of  Orange  ? 
{P.  387.) 

What  relation  was  he  to  Charles  I.  ?    (P.  389.) 

What  French  Minister  was  the  contemporary  of  Cromwell  ?    (P.  276.) 

Who  was  the  mother  of  James  I.  ?    (P.  389.) 

When  did  she  die  ?    (P.  380.) 

How  long  before  the  Spanish  Armada?      (P.  381.) 

What  trouble  had  Elizabeth  after  the  Spanish  Armada  ?    (P.  381.) 

What  part  of  the  16th  century  is  taken  up  by  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  ?    (P.  376.) 

Mention  some  contemporary  Continental  events.    (P.  239.) 

What  E^rench  reigns  correspond  to  that  of  Elizabeth  ?    (P.  264.) 

What  Spanish  reign  corresponds  to  hers  ?    (P.  241.) 

What  English  reigns  correspond  to  that  of  Charles  V.  ?    (P.  376.) 

Who  was  the  father  of  Henry  VIII.  ? 

What  wars  were  closed  by  his  accession  ?    (P.  375.) 

In  what  century  ? 

How  caused  ? 


THIRD    REVIEW    LESSON. 

Who  was  the  first  Lancaster ian  king  ?    (P.  373.) 
Name  the  Lancasterian  kings  ?    (P.  373.) 
When  did  Richard  II.  die  ?    (P.  371.) 
To  what  line  does  ho  belong  ? 
Whence  the  name  of  Plantagenet  ?    (P.  864.) 
What  other  name  have  the  Plantagenets  ?    (P.  364.) 
Who  was  the  first  Plantagenet  ?    (P.  364.) 

What  French  possessions  were  ruled  by  the  Norman  kings  before  him  ?    (P.  363.) 
What  French  possessions  did  he  add?    (P.  364.)    Note  that  Anjou,  at  this  time,  included 
Touraine. 

Who  first  lost  a  portion  of  those  provinces?    (P.  365.) 

Why?    (P.  365.) 

Date  the  Magna  Charta  ?    (P.  365.) 

What  made  the  English  Norman  Barons  dissatisfied  with  John  ?    (P.  366.^ 

Who  was  the  French  contemporary  of  Henry  HI.  ?    (P.  189.)    Of  Edward  I.  ?    (P.  189.) 

Why  were  the  French  kings  antagonists  of  the  English  at  this  time  ?    (P.  370.) 

Who  assisted  the  Scotch  in  the  time  of  Edward  I.  ?    (P.  370.) 

What  war  did  this  cause  ?    (P.  370.) 

When  was  the  Peace  of  Bretigny  ?    (P.  370.) 

What  difference  did  it  make  as  to  English  possessions  in  France  ? 

In  whose  reign  were  these  possessions  finally  lost  ?    (P.  374.) 

What  English  king  lost  favor  by  failing  to  prosecute  the  French  war  ?    (P.  371.) 

What  relic  does  England  preserve  of  her  old  French  possessions  ?    (P^  '^65.) 


400  ENGLAND. 

FOURTH    REVIEW    LESSON. 

By  what  conquest  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  of  English  history  ended  ?    (P.  362.) 

What  relation  were  the  Normans  to  the  Danes  ?    (P.  362.) 

When  did  Danish  attacks  on  England  begin  ?    (P.  859.) 

What  assisted  Danish  power  in  England  ?    (P.  359.) 

Who  assisted  the  rise  of  Wessex  ?    (P.  358.) 

What  Anglo-Saxon  State  preceded  Wessex  in  greatness  ?    (P.  358.) 

What  Anglo-Saxon  State  preceded  Mei'cia  ?    (P.  356.) 

When  does  the  greatness  of  Northumbria  begin  ?    (P.  355.) 

When  did  Roman  missionaries  first  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons  ?    (P.  356.) 

Was  this  the  first  establishment  of  Christianity  in  Britain  ? 

When  were  the  British  first  Christianized ?    (P.  353) 

Who  overthrew  the  British  Christianity  ?    (P.  354.) 

How  long  was  the  Roman  rule  of  Britain  ?    (Pp.  352,  353.) 

How  long  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  ?    (Pp.  353-362.) 

When  does  the  modem  English  language  begin  its  existence  ?    (P.  375.) 

Of  what  languages  is  it  composed  ? 

Who  was  the  first  national  king  of  England  ?    (P.  366.) 

How  many  English  kings  were  also  French  barons  ?  Ans.  All  between  William  the  Con- 
queror and  Henry  III.,  inclusive. 

Name  these  kings. 

When  was  the  feudal  relation  of  the  English  kings  to  the  French  kings  finally  severed  ? 
(P  370.) 

Map  Studies.— England  under  the  Romans,  see  p.  116  (where,  however,  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  island  appeai-s). 

England  under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  pp.  140, 154, 156. 

England  under  the  Normans  and  French  Angevins  (or  Plantagenets),  pp.  132,  200. 

England  in  the  16th  century,  p.  228. 

England  during  the  wars  of  Charles  I.  with  the  Parliament,  p.  250. 

England  in  the  18th  century,  pp.  254,  256.    Notice  the  section  map. 

England  in  the  19th  century,  pp.  292,  296,  298,  300. 

Observe  the  use  of  the  same  color  for  England  and  Hanover  at  p.  254  and  later  maps. 


SCAN  DINAVIA. 


PAGAN    PERIOD,    TO   A.  D.  looo. 


Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  have  been  comprised,  since  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  under  the  general  term  of  Scandinavia.  They  were  peopled 
before  the  Christian  era  by  a  race' of  the  Germanic 
family  which  still  spoke  a  common  language  in  the 
8th  century  after  Christ.  The  early  literature  and 
forms  of  this  language  have  been  best  preserved  in 
Iceland,  because  this  country,  of  all  those  peopled  by 
the  Scandinavians,  has  been  most  isolated  and  unin- 
fluenced by  change. 

The  Scandinavian  countries  were  un- 
doubtedly frequented  by  Phoenician  traders  in  early 
antiquity.  They  were  visited  by  the  Greek  voyager 
Pytheas  of  Marseilles  in  the  4th  century  b.  c.  They 
were  chiefly  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  amber 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  which  was  highly 
prized  by  the  Roman  ladies. 

In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  Scandinavians 
were  known  as  Northmen  or  Danes.  As  Northmen 
we  hear  of  their  settlement  in  France.     In  England 

tliey  appear  as  Danes  In  Ireland  they  were  known  by  the  latter  name,  and  also 
as  Ostmen  (men  from  the  east).  The  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes,  who  settled 
earlier  in  England,  belonged  to  the  same  branch  of  Germanic  race,  and  the  ter- 
ritory left  vacant  by  them  in  Sleswick-Holstein  and  Jutland,  was  simply  re- 
peopled  by  other  "Danes"  of  the  same  family.  To  the  Scandinavian  branch 
of  the  Germans  belonged  also  the  Goths  of  the  German  invasions.  The  divi- 
sions of  East  and  West  Goths  (Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths)  existed  before  their 
migration  from  the  southern  part  of  Norway  and  Sweden. 


Stone  Implements  of  early 
Scandinavia. 


iO'l 


SCANDINAVIA. 


Norman  Ship.    From  a  Tapestry  of  the  11th  Century. 


The  main  occupation  of  the  Scandinavians,  down  to  the  year  1000  A.  D., 
was  piracy.  After  this  date,  they  gradually  became  Christianized  and  fixed  in- 
habitants at  home  or  in  the  settlements  made  elsewhere  before  this  time. 

Navigration.— As  implied  in  the  length  and  numher  of  their  voyages,  the  shiphuilding  art 
was  carried  to  high  perfection.   A  nearly  constructed  galley,  in  perfect  preservation,  surrounded 

with  all  carpenter's  tools  and  ship- 
building accessories,  has  recently 
been  unearthed  and  is  now  pre- 
served near  Christiana. 

Characteristics.— The 
Northmen  believed  that  their 
chief  divinity,  Odin  (Woden),  was 
to  be  propitiated  by  gold,  and  this 
was  one  cause  of  their  piratical 
expeditions.  Their  treasures  were 
often  buried  with  them.  A  wild 
and  ferocious  bravery  was  a  na- 
tional characteristic.  Certain  war- 
riors, to  show  their  contempt  for 
life,  made  a  practice  of  fighting 
in  their  shirts  (sarks)  and  were  called  Bersekers  (bare-sarkers).  Another  custom  was  the 
"  holm-gang  "  (holm,  an  island),  the  practice  of  resorting  to  some  small  and  untenanted  island 
in  order  to  fight  out  a  quarrel  to  the  death.  From  the  word  "vik,"  a  bay,  was  derived  the 
word  "viking,"  that  is,  to  go  out  on  a  piratical  excursion;  and  the  sea-marauders  were  thence 
called  Vikingar.  From  the  same  word,  "vik,"  are 
derived  names  of  EngUsh  towns  ending  in  "  wick." 
Nautical  terms  in  English  are  mainly  of  Danish  origin. 
The  Pagranism  of  the  Scandinavians  was  like 
their  national  character—a  mixture  of  cruelty  and 
imaginative  mysticism.  Human  sacrifices  were  habit- 
ually offered  as  late  as  the  11th  century.  Influences 
of  Phcenician  Moloch-worship  are  very  apparent, 
although  the  Scandinavian  mythology  has  many  points 
of  contact  with  the  ancient  Greek  and  other  Aryan 
religions,  and  had  the  same  origins. 

Siigras.— Much  attention  was  paid  to  genealogies,  history,  and  mythological  poetry.  Nar- 
rations on  these  subjects  were  called  Sagas.  The  Sagas  were  recited  from  memory  by  the  bards 
or  Skalds. 

Qoverninent.— The  Scandinavian  countries  were  divided  into  a  multitude  of  petty  king- 
doms, imtil  the  general  divisions  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  became  gradually  recog- 
nized as  separate  kingdoms  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  a.  d. 

The  migrations  from  the  Scandinavian  countries,  recorded  in  order  of 
time,  begin  with  those  of  the  Goths,  who  left  their  own  country  to  settle  above 
the  Danube  in  the  3d  century  A.  D.  (p.  133).  Tlie  Anglo-Saxons  It^ft  Sleswick, 
Holstein,  aud  Jutland  in  the  5th  century  A.  D.  (p.  354).     Mixed  bauds  of  Nor 


Viking  Swords.    Museum  of  Bergen. 


PAGAN    PERIOD.  403 

wegians,  Swedes  and  Danes  were  engaged  in  constant  piratical  attacks  on  all 
shores  of  Europe  from  the  close  of  the  8th  to  the  close  of  the  11th  century. 

Reg-nor  Lodbrok,  king  of  Denmark,  led  in  person  the  first  attacks  on  England  (the  first 
recorded  by  English  annals).  In  793  he  sacked  Lindisfame,  and  was  killed  in  Northumbria  the 
following  year,  after  which  his  kinsmen  made  permanent  settlements  in  Yorkshire.  The  Scan- 
dinavian chronicles  claim  conquests  in  Northumbria  a  century  earlier.  Beside  the  settlements 
in  Ireland  (p.  321),  Norwegian  Northmen  also  ruled  Man,  Anglesea,  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys, 
the  Shetlands,  and  the  Faroe  Islands— after  800.  Scotland  did  not  regain  the  Hebrides  and 
Orkneys  till  1262,  nor  the  Shetlands  till  1470.  Swedish  Northmen  ruled  Russia  after  862.  The 
dynasty  of  the  Northman  Rurik  continued  there  till  1598. 

The  Norwegian  king  Harold  Fair-haired,  after  863,  exerted  himself  to  r^ress 
piracy  on  his  own  shores.  This  led  discontented  freebooters  to  migrate  to  Iceland— first 
visited  by  Northmen  two  years  earlier— and  to  France  (legal  possession  of  Normandy,  911). 
From  Iceland  Greenland  was  settled  after  963,  and  America  after  1003.  French  Normans 
ruled  Naples  and  Sicily  after  1059,  and  England  after  1066. 

The  body-gruard  of  the  Byzantine  Emperors  was  also  composed  of  Northmen  (the 
"  Varangians  ")  largely  drawn  from  Sweden.  It  was  the  passing  of  these  warriors  through 
Russia,  to  and  from  Constantinople,  which  led  the  way  to  their  rule  in  Russia  above  men- 
tioned. 

In  826  a  Danish  prince  who  took  refuge  in  exile  with  Louis  the  Pious  at 
Ingelheim,  was  baptized  with  his  family.  At  the  emperor's  instance,  Ansca- 
rius,  a  monk  of  Corvey,  then  undertook  a  mission  to  the  pagans  of  Scandi- 
navia.   He  became  the  first  Apostle  of  the  North,  and  its  Patron  Saint. 

St.  Ansear  labored  constantly  in  Denmark  and  Sweden  until  his  death, 
865,  against  incredible  difficulties  and  obstacles.  As  first  Archbishop  of  Ham- 
burg (founded  by  Charlemagne),  he  worked  with  his  own  hands  at  making 
ropes  and  nets  for  subsistence  until  the  town  was  burned  by  the  pagan  Danes. 
His  mission  was  the  first  effort  to  struggle  with  a  barbarism  which  for  nearly 
two  centuries  longer  generally  resisted  Christianity. 

Beginnings  of  Denmark. — Nearly  contemporary  with  the  death  of 
St.  Ansear  is  the  accession  of  Gorm,  after  860,  the  first  Danish  king  who  united 
the  countries  of  later  Denmark  ;  viz.,  the  Peninsula  of  Jutland,  Zealand,  Funen, 
and  adjacent  islands,  and  the  adjoining  coast-provinces  of  Southern  Sweden, 
Skaania,  Halland  and  Bleking.  (These  Swedish  provinces  were  generally  Danish 
till  1658.)  Gorm's  Norwegian  contemporary  was  the  Harold  Fair-haired  already 
mentioned.  Sweden  being  more  remote,  is  less  known;  but  this  is  also  the 
time  when  the  Swedish  Varangians  founded  the  Northman  dynasty  in  Russia, 
863  A.  D. 


404 


SCANDINAVIA 


MEDIEVAL    PERIOD,    A.    D.    1000-1500. 


Christianity  first  began  to  be  firmly  established  under  the  Dane  Canute 
the  Great,  1014-1035,  during  whose  reign  the  Scandinavian  countries  were 
united  with  each  other  and  with  England  (p.  361).  When  separated  again  at 
his  death,  Denmark  continued  to  be  the  most  conspicuous  country,  because  most 
nearly  in  contact  with  civilizing  influence. 

The  great  time  of  Medieval  Denmark  was  the  age  of  the  Valde- 
marS,  from  the  middle  of  the  12th  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  (Valde- 
mar  I.,  1157-1182  ;  Canute  VI.,  1182-1202  ;  Valdemar  II.,  1202-1241). 

To  the  time  of  Valdemar  I.  belongs  the  famous  Danish  Archbishop 
Absalon.  His  efforts  raised  to  importance  Copenhagen,  the  present  capital  of 
Denmark.  By  his  care  also  have  been  preserved  the  popular  tales  and  folk-lore 
of  Denmark.  Under  his  direction  was  written,  to  this  end,  the  work  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  a  monk  of  Sorce,  near  Copenhagen.  From  Saxo  Grammaticus, 
through  French  transmission,  Shakespeare  drew  the  story  of  Hamlet ;  and  in 
this  author,  who  wrote  a  century  before  William  Tell,  is  found  the  story  of  the 
father  shooting  an  apple  from  his  child's  head.  It  is  told  of  a  freebooter 
named  Palnatoke,  contemporary  with  Sweyn,  the  father  of  Canute.  The  sister 
of  Canute  VI.,  Ingelburga,  was  married  to  Philip  II.  of  France.  Pope  Innocent 
III.  protected  her  from  desertion  by  this  king. 

The  Wends. — The  Valdemars  were  active  in  combating  a  nation  which, 

in  piracy  and  pagan  barbarism, 
rivaled  the  Scandinavians  of 
earlier  time,  the  Slavonic 
Wends  of  the  Island  of  Rugen 
and  of  Pomerania.  Valdemar 
II.  was  also  commissioned  by 
Pope  Honorius  III.  with  the 
subjugation  of  the  Pagan  Fin- 
nic populations  of  Esthonia, 
where  Revel  was  founded  by 
the  Danes. 

It  was  at  this  time  that 

the  Sword  Brothers, 

founded  1201  by  the  Bishop  of 

Riga,  and  given  the  Order  of  the  Temple  by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  began  their 

crusading  mis-sion  against  the  Pagan  Lithuanic  population  of  Courland  and 


Cathedral  of  Drontheim,  13th  century. 


MEDIEVAL    AND    MODERN    PERIODS.  405 

Livonia.  In  Prussia  Proper  the  same  task  was  undertaken,  after  1325,  by  the 
Order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights.  The  two  brotherhoods  were  united  as  the 
Teutonic  Order,  1337,  and  subsequently  also  held  Esthonia. 

The  12th.  century  is  marked  for  Sweden  by  the  conquest  of  Finland, 
after  1154  (retained  till  1809),  and  the  first  beginnings  there  of  Christianity. 

In  the  13th  century  Norwegian  rule  was  extended  to  Iceland  (till  then 
a  Republic),  and  to  the  Greenland  colony  (extinct  in  the  14th  century). 

At  the  close  of  the  14th  century  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 
were  united  under  one  government  by  the  Union  of  Calmar,  1397. 

SCANDINAVIA,  AFTER  A.  D.   1500. 

Oldenburg  Dynasty. — This  Union  of  Calmar  was  permanent  for  Den- 
mark and  Norway  till  1814.  These  countries  were  ruled,  after  1448,  by  a 
German  dynasty — the  House  of  Oldenburg — a  Principality  bordering  the 
western  bank  of  the  Weser  where  it  enters  the  German  Ocean. 

Vasas  in  Sweden. — The  Union  of  Calmar  was  rather  nominal  than  real 
for  Sweden  till  1530,  after  which  date  Gustavus  Vasa,  a  Swedish  noble,  estab 
lished  once  more  a  separate  dynasty.  The  expenses  of  the  war,  by  which  Swe- 
den was  separated  from  Denmark,  led  Vasa  to  supply  his  exhausted  treasury  by 
levying  on  the  property  of  the  Church,  for  which  the  contemporary  Lutheran 
schism  offered  an  excuse.  In  Denmark  and  Norway,  also,  Lutheranism  was 
favored  and  largely  introduced  by  the  influence  of  selfish  political  and  personal 
motives ;  the  temptation  of  sudden  wealth  to  be  gained  for  king  and  nobles. 

SCANDINAVIA,  AFTER  A.  D.   1600. 

In  the  17th  century  the  Scandinavian  countries  played  a  prominent 
part.  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  was  engaged  against  Austria  in  the  early  part 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (p.  347).  In  its  second  period  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden  was  the  leading  opponent  of  Austria,  and  the  Swedes  remained  in 
Germany  till  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  1648. 

By  the  acquisition  of  the  Bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Verden  in 
this  Peace,  Sweden  controlled  the  commerce  of  the  Weser  and  Elbe.  By  the 
acquisition  of  Western  Pomerania  she  controlled  the  Oder.  The  entire  mas- 
tery of  the  Baltic  was  secured,  with  the  Provinces  of  Carelia  and  Ingria, 
ceded  by  Russia,  1617,  Peace  of  Stolbova,  and  of  Esthonia  and  Livonia,  ceded 
by  the  Peace  of  Oliva,  made  with  Poland  in  1660.  (Poland  had  obtained 
these  provinces  through  the  dissolution   of  the   Teutonic  Order  after  1570.) 


406  SCANDINAVIA. 

Poland  was  ruled  at  this  time  by  a  Catholic  branch  of  the  Vasas,  and  the 
wars  with  this  state,  ended  by  the  Peace  of  OUva,  resulted  from  claims  of 
the  Polish  Vasas  to  the  Swedish  throne.  Two  years  earlier,  the  Peace  of  Roes- 
kilde  with  Denmark  had  given  Sweden  the  provinces  of  Skaania,  Halland,  and 
Bleking,  1658. 

An  interesting  episode  of  Swedish  history  in  the  ]7th  century  is  the  abdica- 
tion and  conversion  to  Catholicism  of  Queen  Christina,  daughter  and  heir  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  Her  cousin  and  successor  was  Charles  X.,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  son  and  grandson  of  the  same  name. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  only  fifteen  when  he  became  king  in 
1697.  His  youth  and  presumed  inexperience  tempted  Russia,  Poland,  and 
Denmark  to  combine  for  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  so  largely  built  up  at 
their  expense.  Denmark  opened  the  war,  and  was  forced  in  one  short  campaign 
to  make  a  humiliating  peace  by  the  treaty  of  Travendal,  1700. 

Peter  the  Great's  Russian  army  of  63,000  men  was  next  beaten  by 
8,000  Swedes  in  the  famous  battle  of  Narva,  1700  (in  Ingria).  In  this,  as  in  all 
his  battles,  Charles  XII.  was  foremost  as  personal  combatant.  The  states  of 
Frederick  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of  Poland  (after  the  death  of 
Sobieski,  1696),  were  next  overrun.  Frederick  Augustus  was  deposed  in  Poland 
in  favor  of  Stanislaus  Leczinsky,  a  Polish  noble.  After  spending  five  years  in 
Poland,  Charles  turned  against  Russia.  He  was  diverted  from  his  march  on 
Moscow  by  the  proposals  of  the  Cossack  chief  Mazeppa.  Mazeppa  was  a  Pole, 
and  in  youth  the  page  of  a  nobleman  whose  anger  he  incurred.  As  punishment 
he  was  bound  to  the  back  of  an  unbroken  horse,  which  was  set  free  to  roam  at 
will.  He  was  borne  to  the  plains  of  the  lower  Dnieper,  where  he  was  rescued 
and  cared  for  by  the  Cossacks. 

Mazeppa  offered  to  raise  the  Cossacks  in  favor  of  Charles  XII.  The 
Russian  Tzar  anticipated  this  projected  revolt,  and  took  such  measures  that 
only  a  small  number  of  Cossacks  and  no  provisions  reached  the  Swedes.  These 
were  meantime  exhausted  by  incessant  marches  over  desolate  territories,  and 
by  the  terrible  severity  of  Russian  winter  weather. 

In  the  battle  of  Pultava,  1709,  the  Swedes  were  utterly  defeated  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  Cliarles  XII.  took  refuge  in  Turkish  territory  at  Bender. 
He  spent  here  several  years,  endeavoring  to  push  Turkey  into  a  Russian  war. 
The  Turks  did  declare  war,  but  made  an  easy  peace  with  Peter  when  his  army 
was  entirely  surrounded  by  them  on  the  Pruth  in  1711.  Charles  did  not 
abandon  his  hopes  of  rekindling  the  war  till  1714  ;  remaining  in  Turkey  while 
his  enemies  in  the  North  (now  joined  by  Prussia,  and  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
eoon  to  bf  George  I.  of  England)  w^re  making  constant  progress. 


EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.  407 

In  1714  he  returned  to  find  the  Swedish  German  possessions  and  the  Baltic 
provinces  almost  entirely  conquered.  After  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  hold 
Stralsund,  he  passed  over  to  Sweden  and  continued  war  on  Denmark  by  in- 
vading Norway.  One  motive  of  this  campaign  was  to  secure  a  base  for  an 
expedition  against  England  in  the  cause  of  the  Stuarts.  The  Swedish  terri- 
tory of  Bremen  and  Verden  had  been  conquered  by  Denmark  in  the  absence  of 
Charles  XII.,  and  was  turned  over  to  the  Hanoverian  state  of  George  I.  (king 
of  England  after  1714) ;  hence  this  project.  But  Charles  was  killed  at  the  siege 
of  the  Norwegian  town  of  Fried  rickshall  in  1718.  His  military  trophies  and  his 
uniform  are  still  kept  in  Stockholm. 

The  result  of  his  career  was  the  overthrow  of  Swedish  ascendency  in 
North  Germany,  to  be  replaced  by  Prussia,  and  of  Swedish  control  of  the 
Baltic,  to  be  replaced  by  that  of  Russia.  Russia  became  mistress  of  the  sea 
where  twenty  years  before  she  had  not  a  single  ship,  and  of  the  Baltic  provinces 
of  Carelia,  Ingria,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia,  a  most  important  part  of  her  modern 
territories.    (Peace  of  Nystad,  1721.) 

To  Prussia  was  ceded  that  part  of  Swedish  Pomerania  commanding  the 
Oder  (the  western  part  of  Swedish  Pomerania  not  Prussian  till  1815,  p.  800). 

The  increase  of  Hanover  by  the  territories  of  Bremen  and  Verden 
was  a  most  imiwrtant  one.  The  constant  participation  of  England  in  the  Con- 
tinental wars  and  politics  of  the  18th  century  (War  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
Seven  Years'  War,  etc.),  and  also  in  the  time  of  Bonaparte,  is  made  clearer 
when  we  understand  that  the  English  king  was  sovereign  of  an  important 
German  province  controlling  the  commerce  of  the  Weser  and  Elbe. 


Charles  XII.  is  one  of  the  most  singular  characters  of  history.  His  obstinate  personal 
bravery  and  willing  endurance  of  soldier  hardship  are  without  parallel.  To  his  unbending 
hardihood  he  owed  the  most  astounding  successes  and  the  most  humiliating  defeats. 

"When  Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony  endeavored  to  obtain  some  mitigation  of 
his  humiliation  from  Charles,  and  the  two  monarchs  met  in  the  Swedish  camp  in  Saxony,  the 
Swede  was  in  his  usual  homely  garb— a  coarse  blue  coat  with  gilt  brass  buttons,  buckskin 
gloves  that  reached  to  the  elbows,  and  a  piece  of  black  taffety  tied  round  his  neck  for  a  cravat. 
Not  a  syllable  was  uttered  on  the  subject  of  the  journey.  The  conversation  turned  wholly  on 
the  king's  jack-boots,  which  he  told  his  royal  guest  he  had  worn  constantly  for  six  years, 
never  laying  them  aside  except  when  he  went  to  sleep.  ...  He  mounted  his  horse  thrice 
a  day,  rose  at  four  in  the  morning,  dressed  himself  with  his  own  hands,  drank  no  wine,  sat  at 
table  only  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  exercised  his  troops  every  day,  and  knew  no  other  pleasure 
but  that  of  making  Europe  tremble."  In  the  first  war  on  Denmark,  at  the  attack  on  Copen- 
hagen, Charles  landed  his  troops  in  small  boats  under  heavy  fire,  and  when  driven  back  he 
reformed  them  in  the  water  as  though  on  parade,  and  led  them  forward  to  victory.  At  Narva 
the  Swedes  charged  in  a  blinding  snow-storm, 

Puring-  his  stay  in  Turkey,  the  Ottoman  government,  which  had  treated  him  with 


408  '  SCANDINAVIA. 

great  hospitality,  furnishing  money  and  supplies  liberally,  at  length  became  wearied  with  his 
intrigues  and  caprices,  and  anxious  to  hasten  his  return.  His  allowance  was  retrenched,  but 
this  only  made  him  spend  with  the  greater  profusion.  His  subterfuges  and  evasions  made  it 
obvious  that  force  alone  could  accomplish  what  had  been  attempted  in  vain  by  more  lenient 
means.  A  resolution  of  the  Turkish  State  Council  to  that  efffect  was  conveyed  to  Charles. 
"  Obey  your  master  if  you  dare,"  said  Charles  to  the  bearer  of  the  mandate,  and  began  to 
adopt  measures  of  defence,  by  employing  his  domestics  in  barricading  doors  and  windows  and 
throwing  up  regular  entrenchments.  These  operations  being  finished,  in  which  he  assisted  with 
his  own  hands,  he  sat  down  to  chess  and  afterward  went  quietly  to  sleep,  as  if  everything  were  in 
a  state  of  perfect  security,  although  his  household  was  deprived  of  provisions  and  invested  on 
all  sides  with  an  army  of  26,000  Turks  and  Tartars.  On  the  following  morning,  with  cool 
intrepidity,  he  went  through  all  the  formalities  of  arranging  a  pitched  battle.  The  cooks  and 
grooms  had  their  respective  stations  assigned  them,  while  the  defence  of  others  was  intrusted 
to  his  chancellor  and  secretary.  After  a  desperate  conflict,  in  which  the  Turks  with  much 
bloodshed  were  repulsed  from  the  house,  the  Pacha,  ashamed  of  sacrificing  a  whole  army  to 
capture  a  single  individual,  ordered  the  premises  to  be  set  on  fire.  The  inmates,  after  trying 
to  extinguish  the  confiagration  with  a  cask  of  brandy,  mistaken  for  a  barrel  of  water,  rushed 
like  maniacs  from  the  burning  pile  and  attacked  their  assailants  sword  in  hand.  In  this  sally 
Charles  fell,  entangled  with  his  spurs.  The  Turks  sprang  upon  him  instantly,  and  carried  him 
by  the  arms  and  legs  to  the  tent  of  their  commander.  No  sooner  was  he  completely  over- 
mastered than  the  violence  and  irritation  of  his  temper  at  once  subsided.  He  even  spoke  of 
the  "  battle  of  Bender"  in  a  strain  of  playful  jocularity,  and  next  morning  he  was  found  by 
his  attendants  sleeping  on  a  sofa  (having  declined  the  luxury  of  a  bed),  bareheaded  and  in 
boots,  his  eyebrows  scorched  and  his  whole  body  covered  with  dust  and  blood.  This  episode 
occurred  some  time  before  the  departure  from  Turkey. 

After  the  changes  which  preceded  or  immediately  followed  his  death, 

the  Scandinavian  countries  occupy  a  subordinate  place  in  history.  Since  the  times 
of  the  Vikings,  Norway  was  always  of  minor  importance,  on  account  of  its  rugged 
and  barren  territory.  Denmark's  position  at  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic  gave 
her,  however,  an  influential  commercial  position.  The  Sound  dues,  levied  on 
passing  foreign  ships,  ostensibly  for  the  maintenance  of  light-houses,  &c.,  were 
an  important  source  of  revenue. 

In  the  times  of  the  French  Revolution  and  of  Bonaparte,  Sweden 
was  generally  a  determined  opponent  of  the  French— at  one  time  England's 
solitary  ally.  Denmark  was  in  general  an  ally  of  the  French  or  hostile  to 
England. 

Sweden's  Loss  of  Finland.— By  refusing  to  follow  the  Russian  policy,  after  the  Peace 
of  Tilsit  in  1807  (p.  295),  of  commercial  exclusion  toward  England,  Sweden  was  involved  in  a 
Russian  war  which  cost  her  Finland,  in  1809— a  most  important  gain  for  Russia,  as  securing 
St.  Petersburg.  This  loss  to  Sweden  was  not  balanced  by  the  union  with  Norway  in  1814,  which 
Denmark  was  obliged  to  cede  in  consequence  of  her  misfortunes  as  ally  of  Bonaparte.  Denmark 
was  given  in  return  the  remaining  portion  of  Swedish  Pomerania,  but  immediately  passed  it 
over  to  Prussia  for  a  sura  of  money  and  the  small  principality  of  Lauenburg,  as  addition  to 
Holstein,  making  the  Slbe  her  border  on  the  south. 


CHRONOLOGY.  409 

This  boundary  was  not  a  permanent  grain  for  Denmark,  which,  in  1866,  lost  the 
whole  of  Sleswick-Holstein  to  Prussia.    Quite  lately  Iceland  has  been  made  independ^t. 

Notwithstanding  her  recent  misfortunes,  Denmark  is  one  of  the  best  governed  of  modem 
kingdoms,  and  the  standard  of  State  education  is  exceptionally  high. 

The  united  kingrdom  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  confined  to  its  natural  boundaries 
and  offering  no  temptation  to  foreign  aggression,  is  a  well-governed  and  peaceful  State.  Since 
about  1830  both  this  kingdom  and  Denmark  have  been  ruled  by  constitutional  monarchy. 
Absolute  monarchy  was,  with  some  intermission,  the  government  of  both  from  the  close  of  the 
16th  until  the  19th  century.  This  form  of  government  was  distinctly  recognized  as  a  protec- 
tion for  the  lower  orders  against  the  nobility— an  interesting  parallel  to  the  history  of  other 
states  (p.  278).  In  Denmark  the  German  Oldenburg  line  still  continues  (reigning  king 
Christian  IX.).  In  Sweden  the  present  dynasty,  represented  by  Oscar  II.,  dates  from  the 
French  General  Bernadotte,  who  was  elected  Crown-prince  in  1810,  and  became  Charles  XIV. 
in  1818. 

Amonir  distingruished  men  of  science  Denmark  boasts  the  name  of  Tycho  Brahe, 
astronomer  of  the  16th  century  (died  1601).  He  preceded  and  influenced  the  celebrated  German 
astronomer  Keppler,  with  whom  he  finally  was  personally  associated  in  Prague.  To  Sweden 
belongs  the  name  of  Linnaeus,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Upsala  after  1742. 


SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS    FOR    WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

What  general  European  war  was  contemporary  with  the  campaigns  of  Charles  XII.? 
(P.  254.) 

What  French  and  English  sovereigns  were  his  contemporaries  ?    (Pp.  283,  395.) 

What  Russian  sovereign  ?    (P.  260.) 

Mention  contemporary  sovereigns  in  time  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  reign  1611-1632? 
(Pp.  270,  383.) 

Who  was  English  contemporary  of  Gustavus  Vasa  ?    (P.  376.) 

What  German  emperor  was  contemporary  of  Valdemar  I.  ?    (P.  163.) 

What  Pope  was  contemporary  of  Canute  VI.  ?    (P.  404.) 

What  French  king  ?    (P.  189.) 

How  long  after  Charlemagne  (p.  154)  did  Northman  rule  begin  in  Russia  ?  In  Iceland  ? 
(P.  403.) 

Map  Study.— For  Danish  possessions  in  Southern  Sweden,  noted  at  p.  403  (Skaania,  Hal- 
land,  and  Bleking),  see  "  Europe  in  the  12th  century,"  p.  182. 

See  map  at  p.  200  for  Rugen  and  Pomerania. 

See  "  Europe  in  1648,"  p.  250,  for  the  following  countries  or  provinces :  Finland  (southern 
portion),  Carelia,  Ingria,  Esthonia,  Livonia,  Courland,  Swedish  Bremen  and  Verden  (mouth  of 
the  Elbe),  Swedish  Pomerania,  Oldenburg. 

See  the  same  map  for  the  following  localities :  Hamburg,  Copenhagen,  Calmar,  Oliva,  Roe- 
ekilde,  Travendal,  Narva,  Pultava,  Bender,  Frederickshall,  Nystad. 

Notice  the  section  map  for  the  lower  Dnieper  at  p.  254. 


410 


SCANDINAVIA. 


SYNCHRONISTIC   GEOGRAPHICAL  TABLE. 


DENMARK. 

NORWAY. 

SWEDEN. 

Gorm, 

after  860. 

St.  Anscar, 

t865. 

Settlements  in 

England  and  Ireland 

before  and  after 

Gorm. 

Harold  Fair-haired, 

after  863. 
Iceland  then  settled. 

Normandy,  911. 

Greenland  settled, 

933. 

America  nettled, 

1003. 

Kurik  in  Russia, 

after  862. 

Varangians  in 

Constantinople 

before  and  artcr 

this  time. 

Canute  the  Great, 
1014-1085. 

Christianity 
established. 


Age  of  the 

Valdemars, 

1157-1341. 


Union  of  Calmar, 
1397. 

Oldenburg  Dynasty 
after  1448. 


Canute  the  Great, 
1014-1035. 


Christianity 
established. 


Iceland  and  Greenland 

ruled  by  Norway, 

13th  century. 


Union  of  Calmar, 
1397. 

Oldenburg  Dynasty, 
after  1448. 


Canute  the  Great, 
1014^1035. 


Christianity 

established. 

Finland 

conquered,  1154. 


Union  of  Calmar, 
1397. 

Oldenburg  Dynasty, 
after  1448. 


Lutheran  schism  in  Scandinavian  countries, 
after  1520. 


Christian  IV.  in  the  Thirty  Yeare'  War. 


War  with  Sweden,  Peace  of  Roeskilde, 

1658,  see  opposite  column. 

War  with  Sweden  ;  no  changes ;  no  reference  in  text. 

Peace  of  Copenhagen,  1660. 

War  with  Sweden,  Peace  of  Travendal, 

in  1700. 

Denmark  renews  the  war  after  Piiltava, 

in  alliance  with  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Hanover. 

War  cloi-ed  by  death  of  Charles  XII.  at  Frederickshall. 


Denmark  the  ally  of  Bonaparte. 
Loses,  in  consequence,  Norway,  1814. 


Vasas  in  Sweden,  after  1520. 


Gustavus  Adolphus,  aft«  1611. 

Carelia  and  Ingria. 

acq.  1617,  from  Russia. 

Bremen,  Verden,  Pomerania, 

acq.  1648,  from  Germany. 

Skaania,  Halland,  Blekinc:, 

acq.,  1658,  from  Denmark. 

Esthonia,  Livonia, 
acq.,  16G0,  from  Poland. 
Charles  XII.,  1697-1718. 

Loss  of  German  territories 
and  Baltic  provinces. 
Decline  of  Sweden. 


Finland  to  Russia, 
1809. 


Denmark  acq.  Lauenburg 
and  the  Elbe  boundary, 

1815. 

Loses  Lauenburg  and 

Sleswick-Holstcin  to 

Pru^:'«ia  1866. 


Union  of  Norway  with  Sweden. 

Line  of  Bcrnadottc,  as  Charles  XIV. 
after  1818. 


RUSSIA    AND    POLAND. 


BEFORE    THE    TARTAR    CONQUEST. 

The  first  accounts  of  Eastern  Europe  are  found  in  Herodotus,  whose 
knowledge  was  drawn  from  the  Greek  settlements  in  the  Crimea,  around  the 
Sea  of  Azof,  and  along  the  northern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  Beyond  these 
Greek  colonies  lay  the  Scythians — some  wandering,  some  agricultural — and 
other  savage  tribes. 

It  is  probable  that  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Russians  formed  a  portion  of 
this  population.  But  nothing  is  known  of  them  until  after  the  disturbances 
and  displacements  caused  by  the  German  migrations,  when  the  Slavonian 
peoples  are  found  reaching  into  Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe  (p.  154). 

To  the  Slavonian  family  belong,  beside  the  tribes  afterward  subdued 
or  expelled  in  this  part  of  Germany,  the  Tzechs  of  Bohemia,  the  Servians  and 
Bulgarians,  the  Poles  and  the  Russians. 

In  the  9th  Century  A.  D.,  when  our  knowledge  of  Russian  history 
begins,  the  Russian  Slavonians  were  centred  in  the  territory  in  which  the 
Dniester,  Dnieper,  soutbern  Dwina  and  Ilmen  take  their  rise.  The  Finns  ex- 
tended over  Northern  Russia,  above  the  upper  Volga  and  its  tributaries.  The 
lower  basin  of  the  Volga  on  the  west  side,  and  the  basin  of  the  Don,  were 
peopled  by  mixed  Finnish  and  Turkish  tribes.  East  of  the  lower  Volga  and  in 
the  country  of  the  Ural  river  were  Turks  or  Tartars. 

During  the  course  of  Russian  history  the  Slavonic  clement  has  generally 
assimilated  or  swallowed  up  the  once  widely  extended  Finnish  and  Tartar 
populations.  These,  however,  were  not  all  entirely  barbarian.  The  Empire  of 
the  Khazars,  mixed  Finns  and  Turks,  in  and  above  the  Crimea  and  covering 
the  lower  valleys  of  tbe  Dnieper  and  Don,  was  in  the  9th  century  a  flourish- 
ing State. 

Although  the  lower  Dnieper  was  thus  held  by  a  foreign  power,  it  was  the 


412 


RUSSIA. 


channel  by  which,  civilization  came  from  the  Byzantine  Empire  (pp.  135,  136) 
to  the  Russian  Slavonians.  Their  rulers,  on  the  other  hand,  came  from  the 
north — from  Sweden  (p.  403).  Swedish  Northmen,  familiar  (as  Varangians, 
p.  403)  with  the  Slavonic  country,  as  the  route  to  Constantinople,  were  invited 
by  the  disorganized  and  jarring  tribes  to  rule  over  them.  A  band  headed  by 
Rurik  accepted  the  invitation,  862.  (The  Swedes  were  called  by  the  Finns 
"  Russ,"  hence  the  word  Russia.) 

Hurik  established  himself  at  Novgorod  on  the  Ilmen ;  an  important  port 

of  Baltic  commerce,  by  its  connection 
through  Lake  Ladoga  and  the  Neva. 
His  son  Igor  made  Kief,  on  the 
Dnieper,  his  capital.  Igor's  widow, 
Olga,  succeeded  him,  and  visited 
Constantinople,  where  she  became  a 
Christian  convert. 

The  beginnings  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Rossi  a  date,  then ,  after  the 
middle  of  the  10th  century.  (Igor 
died  945.)  They  came  from  Constan- 
tinople, so  that  the  Russians  belong 
to  the  Greek  Church.  The  relative 
barbarism  of  modern  Russia  results 
not  only  from  the  disadvantages  of 
climate  and  position,  but  also  from 
the  inferior  vitality  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  whose  forms  she  adopted  ; 
while  Poland  and  Bohemia,  as  con- 
verts to  Roman  Catholic  Christian- 
ity (p.  158),  were  thus  connected  with 
Western  civilization. 

The  Northmen  of  Russia 
engaged  in  frequent  warfare  both 
for  and  against  the  Byzantine  state, 
and  the  accounts  of  the  Normans  in  France  and  elsewhere  give  us  a  fair 
idea  of  their  character. 

In  the  11th  century  the  Norman  ruling  family  was  intermanicd  with 
many  of  the  West  Euro^^ean  states,  The  Grand  Prince  Jaroslaf  sheltered  the 
sons  of  Edmund  Ironsides  (p.  863).  His  reign  (till  1054)  was  the  glory  of  Kief 
•'  the  city  of  four  hundred  churcheB." 


Russian  painting  of  the  Madonna  at  Vladimir. 
{Twelfth  Century.) 


TARTAR    INVASIONS.  413 

After  this  time  the  habit  of  dividing  the  state  among  the  heirs  of  the 
prince,  and  the  feudal  tendencies  of  the  age,  broke  Russia  into  a  number  of 
principalities,  but  all  were  ruled  by  descendants  of  Rurik.  Besides  Novgorod 
and  Kief  may  be  mimed  Pskof  on  the  Peipus,  Smolensk  on  the  Dnieper,  Tver 
on  the  upper  Volga,  Riazan  on  the  Oka,  and  Vladimir  on  the  Kliazma.  The 
towns  on  the  upper  Volga  and  its  branches  were  at  this  time  the  advanced  posts 
of  Russia  against  the  Finnish  fiopulations  on  the  east,  and  were  especially 
developed  by  Vladimir  the  Great,  12th  century. 

Kief,  on  the  other  hand,  declined ;  because  the  Khazars  had  been  replaced 
in  the  10th  century  by  the  barbarous  Patzinaks,  who  interfered  with  the  com- 
merce on  the  Dnieper.  Kief  was  afterwards  incorporated  with  Galicia,  and 
then  passed  with  that  originally  Russian  province  to  Lithuanian  Poland  for 
many  centuries.  The  ascendency  of  Kief  was  replaced  after  1169  by  that  of 
Vladimir  on  the  Kliazma  (a  branch  of  the  Volga),  capital  of  the  principality 
of  Souzdal. 

From  the  Grand  Princes  of  Souzdal,  or  Vladimir,  descend  the  later 
Princes  of  Moscow,  This  town  has  its  name  from  the  Moskwa,  tributary  of  the 
Oka,  and  sub-tributary  of  the  Volga.  Meantime  the  powerful  commercial 
republic  of  Novgorod,  ruling  over  the  whole  of  northern  Russia,  had  developed 
a  semi -independence  only  held  in  check  by  its  dependence  on  Souzdal  for  corn. 


FROM   THE  THIRTEENTH   TO  THE   EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Mongol  Invasion. — By  the  colonies  established  on  the  upper  tributaries 
of  the  Volga  the  Russian  Slavonians  were  beginning  to  win  their  way  as  colo- 
nists down  the  valley  of  this  river  beyond  Nijni  Novgorod,  when  a  Tartar 
invasion  from  Mongolia  enslaved  Russia  for  two  hundred  years.  Dschingis 
Khan  (p.  168)  had  extended  his  power  from  the  territories  north  of  China  over 
Turkestan  and  into  Europe.  The  Tartars  were  wandering  herdsmen  belonging 
to  the  same  race  as  the  Huns  of  Attila  (pp.  142,  145),  absolute  barbarians,  cruel 
in  character  and  repulsive  in  manners  and  appearance. 

In  1224  a  Tartar  army  invaded  the  country  of  the  Pelovtsi,  barbarian  successors  of  the 
Patzinaks  in  the  basins  of  the  Don  and  lower  Dnieper.  These  begged  help  of  their  enemies, 
the  Eussians  of  Galicia.  Help  was  accorded,  but  the  united  armies  were  defeated  on  the 
Kalka,  a  small  river  flowing  into  the  Sea  of  Azof.  Notwithstanding  this  victory,  the  Tartars 
turned  back  to  Asia,  and  were  absent  thirteen  years,  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  China.  When 
they  returned,  in  1237,  it  was  by  way  of  the  Volga.  They  marched  to  within  fifty  miles  of  Nov- 
gorod, destroying  everything  in  their  path.  They  then  turned  south  to  sack  Kief  and  ravage 
Galicia.  At  the  call  of  this  province  Pope  Innocent  TV.  summoned  Christendom  to  arms.   The 


414 


RUSSIA 


Tartars,  although  victorious,  weie  checked  at  Liegnitz  in  Silesia,  and  at  Olmfltz  in  Moravia  hy 
the  Bohemians  and  Moravians.  They  were  turned  back  by  the  approach  of  a  German  army 
and  the  news  of  their  emperor's  death  in  China. 

They  contimied  to  hold  all  Russia  in  tribute  and  subjection,  but 
remained  as  settled  conquerors  in  the  country  of  the  lower  Volga,  reaching  as 
fur  north  as  the  city  of  Kasan.  They  were  known  as  the  "  Golden  Horde,"  and 
after  1260  were  independent  of  the  great  Mogul  (whose  seat  was  on  the  Amour 
or  in  China).  The  Tartars  of  the  Golden  Horde  became  converts  to  Moham- 
medanism after  1272. 


Lithuania  and  Poland.— While  Russian  power  was  broken  on  the  east  by  the  Mongols, 
much  territory  on  the  west  was  absorbed  by  Lithuania,  and  then  joined  with  that  state  to 
Poland.  The  Lithuanians  (an  Aryan  nation)  belonged  originally  in  the  basin  of  the  Niemen, 
reaching  on  either  side  toward  the  Vistula  and  the  (southern)  Dwina.  In  the  13th  century 
they  attained  political  unity.  Li  the  14th  century  (first  Christianized  after  1345)  they  pushed 
south  over  the  intervening  Russian  territory  to  the  conquest  of  Galicia,  and  as  far  as  the 
Dnieper  and  the  Ciimea.  In  1386  this  Lithuanian  state  was  united  with  Poland  (by  marriage) 
under  the  Jagellons.    In  1410,  by  the  battle  of  Taunenberg,  the  Teutonic  Order  was  crushed, 

and   Lithuanian   Poland    was 

extended  to  the  Baltic,  divid- 
ing the  knights  in  Prussia  from 
those  in  Livonia.  With  some 
intervals  of  separation  before 
1601,  Poland  and  Lithuania 
were  finally  united  after  that 
date,  and  became  ah  elective 
monarchy  after  1569. 


/C 

m 

i 

i'i 

/A 

"   \ 

% 

^m>Dieii>e; 

-J 

m^l 

The  Princes  of 
Moscow. — Among  the 
subject  Russian  princes 
under  the  Mongol  yoke, 
those  of  Moscow  raised 
themselves  to  power  by 
farming  the  capitation  tax 
levied  by  the  Tartars  (to 
which  end  was  made  a 
census  of  the  whole  peo- 
ple), and  by  using  Tartar  assistance  in  their  contests  with  other  Russian  princes. 
During  tlu?  14th  and  early  15th  c^^nturies  was  thus  gotten  together  a  territory 
reaching  from  Tver  to  the  neighborhood  of  Kasan  and  from  the  upper  valley 
•f  the  Don  to  the  latitude  of  Lake  Onega 


Church  of  St.  Basil,  at  Moscow. 
iBuUt  by  Ivan  the  Terrible.) 


PRINCES    OF    MOSCOW.  415 

Ivan  III.  the  Great,  1462-1505,  is  the  sovereign  under  whom  Russia 
escaped  the  Mongol  slavery.  He  refused  the  tribute  in  1480.  He  reconquered 
from  Lithuanian  Poland,  Russian  territory  to  the  Desna  and  Soja  (eastern 
branch  of  the  Dnieper),  and  subjected  Novgorod  with  its  inimense  territories. 
Ivan  III.  married  Sophia  Palseologus,  niece  to  the  last  Byzantine  emperor,  an 
alliance  arranged  by  Pope  Paul  II.  From  this  time  Russia  has  conceived  her- 
self the  heir  of  Byzanz  (conquered  by  the  Turks  in  the  preceding  reign,  1453), 
and  hereditary  enemy  of  the  Turks.  The  double-headed  eagle  crest  of  modern 
Russia  was  adopted  by  Ivan,  who  added  to  the  Russian  eagle  that  of  East- 
Rome.  Many  Greeks  and  Italians  came  into  Russia  with  the  Princess  Sophia, 
and  did  much  to  bring  the  country  nearer  to  the  civilization  of  Western 
Europe. 

Ivan  the  Terrible. — Following  the  reign  of  Vassili  Ivanovitch,  1505-1533, 
comes  Ivan  IV.  the  Terrible,  1533-1584.  He  conquered  the  Tartar  khanates  of 
Kasan  and  -Astrachan,  giving  to  Russia  (for  the  first  time)  the  whole  course  of 
the  Volga.  The  Cossacks  of  the  Don  also  subjected  themselves.  With  his 
son  and  successor,  Feodor  Ivanovitch   1584-1598,  ended  the  line  of  Rurik. 

Serfdom. — A  Russian  noble,  brother-in-law  of  Feodor,  put  to  death  the 
heir  Dmitri  and  usurped  the  throne.  To  this  Boris  Godounoff  is  ascribed  the 
measure  by  which  serfdom  became  general.  The  binding  of  the  peasants  to 
the  soil  as  serfs  was  intended  to  protect  the  small  landholders,  on  whom  fell 
the  burden  of  military  defence.  Serfdom  was  intended  to  secure  them  from 
losing  the  laborers  needed  to  work  their  farms,  against  the  competition  of 
wealthy  landholders  able  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  labor. 

House  of  RomanofiE — The  death  of  Boris  Godounoff  was  followed  by 
disorders  and  disturbances  to  which  Poland  and  Sweden  contributed,  1605-1613. 
From  these  troubles  Russia  was  rescued  by  Michael  Romanoff,  1613-1645,  the 
grandfather  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Under  his  son  Alexis  Michailovitch,  1645-1676,  through  a  Cossack  rehellion  agamst  Poland, 
Kief  and  the  comitry  of  the  lower  Dnieper  (known  as  the  Ukraine)  were  reunited  with  Russia. 
The  Cossacks  of  this  country  north  of  the  Black  Sea  were  nomad  marauding  soldiers,  largely 
composed  of  reftigee  serfs.  They  were  engaged  in  constant  border  warfare  with  the  Tartars 
of  the  Crimea,  and  as  the  protectors  of  the  Polish  or  Russian  frontiers  were  tolerated  and 
accorded  more  or  less  independence.  Although  now  much  diminished  in  numbers,  the  Cos- 
sacks still  furnish  the  Russian  army  with  an  effective  light  cavalry. 

Alexis  was  succeeded  by  three  children— Feodor  Alexievitch,  1676-1682;  his  daughter 
Sophia,  Regent,  1682-1689  ;  and  Peter  the  Great,  1689-1725. 

Map  Study.— Russian  Slavonians  in  the  9th  century,  p.  154.  Poland  and  Grand  Duchy  of 
Vladimir,  p.  182.  Poland  and  Lithuania,  pp.  200,  228— united  as  an  Elective  Monarchy,  pp.  250, 
256.    For  localities  and  rivers,  see  map  of  modem  Russia. 


416  RUSSIA. 


PETER  THE  GREAT  AND  LATER  SOVEREIGNS. 

The  significance  of  Peter  the  Great's  reign  for  Russia  will  be 
apparent  by  noting  the  course  of  her  rivers  and  the  position  of  her  territories  so 
far  enumerated.  From  Europe  in  general  Russia  was  separated  by  the  bleak 
phiins  of  Lithuania  and  Poland.  The  mouth  of  the  Dnieper  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Crimean  Tartars,  who  were  subjects  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  So  also  were  the 
mouth  of  the  Don,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof.  By  the  Volga  and  the  Caspian  Russia 
was  connected  only  with  Asia.  Ingria  and  Carelia  (since  1617),  Livonia  and 
Esthonia  (since  1660),  belonged  to  Sweden  (p.  405) ;  tlius  Russia  was  entirely 
cut  off  from  the  Baltic.  Her  only  intercourse  with  Europe  was  by  means  of 
Archangel  and  the  White  Sea,  which,  on  account  of  the  ice,  is  open  to  navi- 
gation only  from  June  to  September. 

To  civilize  Russia  it  was  necessary  to  open  the  Baltic.  Hence  Peter 
the  Great's  participation  in  the  wars  on  Charles  XII.  The  victory  of  Narva 
was  entirely  barren  for  Charles.  During  his  absence  in  Poland,  Peter  had 
already  founded  St.  Petersburg,  1703,  as  a  Russian  capital,  replacing  Moscow, 
which  should  keep  open  communication  with  Europe.  By  the  Peace  of 
Nystad,  1721,  securing  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  and  Carelia  to  Russia,  her 
supremacy  in  the  Baltic  was  assured.     (Compare  frontier,  at  pp.  250,  300.) 

In  opening  up  the  Black  Sea,  Peter  was  less  fortunate,  but  this  was  of  less 
consequence.  He  took  Azof,  the  key  of  the  Don,  in  1796 ;  but  lost  it  after  his 
campaign  against  Turkey  on  the  Pruth,  1711. 

Character  of  Peter  the  Great.— Peter's  greatness  was  not  simply  that  of  a  states- 
manlike conqueror.  At  his  accession  he  harried  to  Archangel  and  learned  to  be  a  practical 
sailor,  in  order  to  encourage  his  countrymen  in  marine  enterprise.  He  served  as  bombardier  in 
the  campaign  on  Azof,  and  marched  on  foot  as  a  captain  in  the  triumphal  procession  on  return 
to  Moscow,  in  order  to  give  an  example  of  military  subordination  and  discipline.  In  1697  he 
started  for  Holland,  learned  the  trade  of  a  ship-carpenter,  dressed  in  workman's  clothes  in 
Saardam,  took  lessons  as  a  workman  in  manufacturing  paper  and  ropes,  and  also  studied  a 
little  medicine  and  surgery.  In  England  he  spent  three  months  in  learning  shipbuilding,  and 
returned  home  by  way  of  Vienna,  where  he  studied  the  military  art.  Kevolts  in  his  absence 
against  European  innovations  led  him  to  wage  war  on  the  long  beards  of  the  Russians,  the 
symbol  of  their  conservative  prejudices,  for  to  shave  the  beard  was  sacrilege.  Therefore  he 
caused  the  beards  to  fall,  and  with  his  own  hand  shaved  several  of  his  lords.  With  the  same 
terrible  earnestness  he  even  acted  as  executioner,  beheading  some  of  the  ringleaders  of  the 
military  mutiny  which  caused  his  return.  Even  his  death  was  characteristic.  To  rescue  a  boat 
in  distress  he  threw  himself  into  the  icy  water  of  Lake  Ladoga,  thus  contracting  a  fatal  cold. 

The  first  Emperor  of  Russia,  the  founder  of  St.  Petersburg,  forgot  to  build  himself  a 
palace.    "  His  favorite  residence  of  Peterhof  was  like  tlie  villa  of  a  well-to-do  Dutch  citizen." 


PETER    THE    GBEAT 


417 

They  delight  in  repeat- 


The  people  have  preserved  his  memory  in  their  songs  and  traditions, 
ing  "  he  worked  harder  than  a  peasant." 

The  life  of  Peter  shows  the  absolute  dependence  of  Russia  on  the  personal  will  of  the  sov- 
ereign, partly  a  result  of  Eastern  and  Tartar  influence,  but  also  a  result  of  the  Byzantine  ideal 
of  government.  Until  his  time,  the  head  of  the  Russian  Church  had  been  the  Patriarch  of 
Moscow.  The  suppression  of  the  Patriarchate  for  a  Synod,  of  which  the  Tzar  is  really  master, 
dates  from  Peter. 


RUSSIAN    SOVEREIGNS   SINCE  THE   SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

Ivan  III A.  D, 

Vassili  Ivanovitch " 

Ivan  IV " 

Feodor  Ivanovitch " 

Boris  Godounoff " 

Interregnum " 

Michael  Romanoff " " 

Alexis  Michailovitch " 

Feodor  Alexie vitch " 

Sophia  as  Regent " 

Peter  the  Great " 

Catharine  I '* 


Peter  II 

Anne  Ivanovna 

(Ivan  VI.) 
Elizabeth  Petrovna. 

Peter  III 

Catharine  II 

Paul  I 


Alexander  I.. 

Nicholas  I 

Alexander  II. 
Alexis 


1462-1505 
1505-1533 
1533-1581 
1584-1598 
1598-1G05 
1605-1613 
1613-1645 
1645-1676 
1676-1689 
1682-1689 
1689-1725 
1795-1727 
1727-1730 
1730-1740 

1741-1762 

1762 

1762-1796 

1796-1801 

1801-1825 

1825-1855 

1855-1881 

1881 


GENEALOGY  OP  RUSSIAN  SOVEUEIGNS  AFTER  PETER  THE  GREAT. 

(1) 

Ivan,  brother  of         Peter  the  Great  =  First  wife  =  Catharine  I. 


Catharine=Dnke  of  Mecklenburg.      Anne. 
I  (3) 

Anne=Duke  of  Brunswick. 

Ivan  VI. 
(4) 


Alexis 


Peter  II. 
(2) 


Elizabeth. 
(5) 


Anne = Duke  of  Holstein. 

Peter  III.  =  Catharine  II. 

(6)         I  (7) 

I 

Paul  I. 

I 


Alexander  I. 
Alexander  II. 
Alexis. 


Nicholas  L 


4J8 


RUSSIA. 


SUMMARY   OF   RUSSIAN    SOVEREIGNS    SINCE   PETER   THE   GREAT. 


Catharine  I.,  1725-1727.— Peter  the  Great's  second  wife— a  Livonian  peasant  and 
widow  of  a  Swedish  dragoon.  She  saved  the  army  of  Peter  on  the  Pruth  in  1711,  when  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Turlcs,  by  sending  her  own  jewels  and  all  she  could  collect  from  the  Russian 
officers  as  a  present  to  an  influential  official  of  the  Grand  Vizier.  Notwithstanding  her  humble 
origin,  she  was  crowned  empress  in  the  lifetime  of  Peter,  and  ruled  successfully  after  his 
death. 

Peter's  son  Alexis,  by  his  first  wife,  was  detected  in  conspiring  against  hie  reforms,  and 
perhaps  in  plotting  his  father's  overthrow.  He  died  mysteriously,  during  the  judicial  inquiry 
into  his  crime.    The  son  of  this  Alexis  became— 

Peter  III.,  1727-1730.— A  short  reign,  showing  the  increase  of  Germanizing  tendencies 
at  the  court— no  direct  male  heir. 

Catharine  I.  and  Peter  had  two  daughters— Anne  (who  married  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  and 
had  a  son,  after\vard  Peter  III.)  and  Elizabeth.  The  Council  of  State  wishing  to  increase  its 
power,  and  hoping  to  gain  more  favor  from  indirect  heirs,  set  aside  these  descendants  and 
chose  a  daughter  of  Peter's  brother  Ivan.    She  reigned  as— 

Anne  Ivanovna,  1730-1740.— Germanic  tendencies  continue.  Polish  Succession 
was  1733-1738.    War  with  Turkey,  1736-1739  (p.  428). 

A  second  daughter  of  Ivan,  named  Catharine,  had  married  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  Their 
daughter  Anne  married  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  (Genealogy),  The  son  of  this  marriage  had  been 

declared  the  heir  of  Anne  Ivanovna, 
as  Ivan  VI.  A  revolution,  however, 
l)laced  on  the  throne  the  daughter  of 
Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine  I.— 

Elizabeth  Petrovna,  1741- 
1762. — An  able  sovereign.  Time  of 
the  Austrian  Succession  and  Seven 
Years' Wars.    Succeeded  by  — 

Peter  III.,  1762,  son  of  Peter's 
daughter  Anne  and  the  Duke  of  Hol- 
stein. His  rule  was  unpopular,  and 
was  overthrown  by  a  revolution 
which  made  his  wife  S()i)hia  of  An- 
halt-Zerbst  empress.  (Peter  III.  died 
mysteriously.)  She  reigned,  adopt- 
ing a  new  name,  as— 
Divisions  of  Poland  (p.  418).  Two  wars  with  Turkey.  A 
Followed  by  her  son- 


Palace  of  the  Hermitage,  St.  Pctcibburg 
iBuUt  by  CathaHne  11.) 


Catharine  II.,  1762-1796 
remarkably  able  sovereign.    French  tendencies  at  the  court 

Paul  I.,  1796-1801.— A  determined  enemy  of  the  French  Revolution,  but  an  enthusi- 
astic admirer  of  Bonaparte,  with  whom  he  allied  himself.  His  death  was  a  severe  blow  to 
Napoleon.    His  son  followed— 

Alexander  I.,  1801-1825.— Prominent  in  the  coalitions  against  Bonaparte  till  Peace 
of  Tilsit,  1807 ;  then  ally  of  Bonaparte  till  1812 ;  afterwards  most  active  toward  his  over- 
throw. 

Nicholas  I.,  1825  1855.— Brother  of  the  last  Tzar.  A  rigid  martinet  and  dieciplmarian, 


RUSSIAN    SOVEREIGNS.  419 

but  not  badly  disposed  ruler.  (He  forbade  his  subjects  to  violate  the  Chinese  law  against  the 
opium  traffic,  while  the  English  made  three  wars  to  force  this  drug  on  the  Chinese.)  He  died 
of  grief  at  the  result  of  the  Crimean  War  (p.  298).    His  son  succeeded, 

Alexander  H.,  1855-1881.— Famous  for  his  liberation  of  the  Russian  serfs  in  1861. 
His  assassination  by  the  Nihilists  placed  on  the  throne  his  son,  the  ruling  Tzar  Alexander  III. 
Russian  "Nihilism"  has  some  support  from  the  old  Russian  antagonism  to  the  foreign  inno- 
vations introduced  by  Peter  the  Great  and  his  successors,  but  it  is  essentially  only  the  Russian 
name  for  the  party  of  auarchy  and  socialism  now  becoming  rampant  all  over  Europe. 


TERRITORIAL   HISTORY   OF   RUSSIA  AFTER    PETER  THE   GREAT. 

During:  the  18th  century  important  additions  in  Europe  were  made  at  the  expense 
of  Turkey  and  Poland.  War  with  Turkey  from  1768  to  1774  (Catharine  U.)  closed  with  the 
Peace  of  Kainardji,  giving  Russia  control  of  the  ports  commanding  the  Don  and  Sea  of  Azof, 
and  preparing  the  way  for  the  acquisition,  1783,  of  the  Crimea  and  the  control  of  the  Black 
Sea.    (Compare  section  map,  p.  254,  with  map,  p.  298.) 

A  second  war  with  Turkey,  1787-1793  (Catharine  II.),  gave  Russia,  by  the  Peace  of  Jassy, 
the  river  Dniester  as  boundary,  thus  gaining  entire  control  of  the  Dnieper.  (Compare  as  above.) 

The  three  partitions  of  Poland,  1772, 1793, 1795  (Catharine  II.),  carried  the  Russian  boun- 
dary on  the  west  to  the  Niemen  and  Bug,  a  branch  of  the  Vistula.  Russia  only  gained  at  this 
time  territories  which  once  belonged  to  her  in  the  Middle  Age,  and  were  afterwards  conquered 
by  Lithuania,  but  Poland  proper  was  divided  by  Austria  and  Prussia,  associates  in  this 
national  crime,  by  her  assistance.  (Compare  Russian  frontier  at  pp.  256,  292.  The  Bug  is 
marked  at  p.  300 ;  another  river  of  the  same  name  at  p.  254.) 

Later  Acquisitions.— Finland  was  conquered  from  Sweden  in  1809  (Alexander  I). 
Bessarabia  (the  coimtry  between  Dniester  and  Pruth)  and  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  were 
taken  from  Turkey  in  1812  (Alexander  I.).  The  portions  of  Poland  given  to  Austria  and 
Prussia  by  the  second  and  third  partitions  were  united  by  Bonaparte  after  1807  (Peace  of 
Tilsit)  as  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  The  Duchy  of  Warsaw  was  united  to  Russia  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna,  1815,  but  under  separate  government.  (Compare  maps,  pp.  293»29C.)  Discontent 
of  the  Poles  at  this  arrangement  led  to  the  revolt  of  1830,  after  which  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw 
was  united  directly  with  Russia  and  very  harshly  treated,  especially  since  the  rising  of  1863. 

By  the  Crimean  war,  1853-1856  (Nicholas  I.),  the  Danube  mouths  were  lost,  all 
fortresses  and  arsenals  on  the  Black  Sea  were  to  be  abandoned,  and  no  Russian  ships  of  war 
were  to  be  allowed  there.  These  last  conditions  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  have  been  disregarded 
by  Russia  since  the  Franco-Prassian  War  of  1870-1871. 

In  consequence  of  the  Bulgrarian  massacres  in  1876,  Russia  declared  war  on 
Turkey,  and  her  armies  reached  the  walls  of  Constantinople.  Only  some  territory  in  Armenia, 
with  the  important  fortresses  of  Batoum  and  Kars  in  Asia  Minor,  were  ceded  Russia.  The 
power  of  Turkey  in  Europe  was,  however,  almost  entirely  crippled. 


TERRITORIAL  ADVANCE   IN  ASIA. 

In  the  reign  of  Ivan  IV.  (died  1584),  Russian  explorers  had  passed  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains into  Siberia.    Before  the  end  of  the  16th  century  the  Russian  possessions  in  Asia  reached 


420  HUSSIA. 

to  the  Obi  and  Trtych,  by  which  trade  was  opened  with  Bokhara.  By  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury the  Russian  possessions  in  Asia  reached  to  the  Pacific  and  took  in  KAmschatlai,  whither 
Peter  the  Great  sent  an  exploring  expedition.  Thus  far  only  the  territory  drained  by  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  was  ruled  and  colonized.  During  the  18th  century  no  perma- 
nent advance  was  made  in  Asia.  Tn  the  19th  century  Russia  has  conquered  the  Caucasus,  and 
her  territory  now  reaches  in  Asia  Minor  beyond  the  Araxes.  On  the  Pacific  she  gained  in  1858 
the  country  of  the  Amour,  from  China ;  and  in  1875  the  Island  of  Saghalia,  from  Japan.  Alaska, 
occupied  in  182"2,  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1875.  Acquisitions  begun  in  Northern 
Turkestan  after  1844  have  resulted  in  gaining  Tashkent,  1865,  Samarcand,  1868,  Khiva,  1873,  and 
Khocand,  1875. 

The  approach  of  Russian  territory  to  the  British  frontier  in  India  on  the 
Bide  of  Afghanistan  by  the  Sir  Daija  (Oxus),  which  flows  into  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  forms  in  its 
lower  course  the  valley  and  Khanate  of  Khiva,  has  much  excited  the  solicitude  of  Great 
Britain,  and  has  been  lately  a  fertile  source  of  diplomatic  controversy  and  state  jealousy.  The 
wars  lately  waged  by  England  in  Afghanistan  have  been  intended  to  anticipate  and  head  oflf 
the  Russian  advance.  On  the  other  hand,  late  Russian  expeditions  against  the  Turcomans  of 
the  Tekke  Oasis  ai-e  intended  to  establish  new  points  of  foothold  on  the  Afghan  frontier.  The 
Oxus  flowed,  in  ancient  times,  into  the  Caspian,  but  was  turned  oflf  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  by  a 
dike  constructed  by  the  Turcomans.  One  object  of  the  Russians  is,  by  cutting  the  dike,  to 
turn  the  river  into  its  old  channel,  thus  restoring  the  ancient  water  communication  between 
the  heart  of  Asia  and  Central  Russia  by  way  of  the  Volga.  A  canal  connecting  the  Volga  and 
the  Don  would,  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea  and  Danube,  establish  Russia  as  a  powerful  rival  of 
England  in  the  commei-ce  between  Europe  and  the  East. 

SUMMARY    OF    RUSSIAN    HISTORY. 

Rurik,  862. 

Power  of  Kief,  till  the  middle  of  the  12th  century. 

The  principality  of  Souzdal  then  takes  the  lead  till  the  Mongol  (Tartar)  in- 
vasion?. 

Mongol  power  over  Russia  from  1224  to  1480.  The  western  provinces  of 
Russia  are  conquered  by  Lithuania  and  so  united  with  Poland. 

The  Grand  Princes  of  Moscow  (originally  a  town  of  Souzdal)  threw  off  the 
Mongol  yoke  in  1480,  under  Ivan  III.  Territorial  increase  on  the  west  and  on 
the  north  (Republic  of  Novgorod). 

Ivan  IV.  adds  the  Khanates  of  Kazan,  1552,  and  Astrachan,  1554  (basin  of 
the  lower  Volga),  and  the  country  of  the  Don. 

Peter  the  Great,  central  date  1700,  adds  the  Baltic  provinces  and  so  opens 
Russia  to  Europe. 

Catharine  II.  adds  Lithuanian  Poland  and  the  Crimea,  after  1772. 

Alexander  I.  adds  Finland  1809,  and  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw  after  1815. 

The  Russian  advance  in  Asia,  which  had  reached  Kamschatka  about  1700, 
begins  to  approach  the  British  possessions  in  India,  after  1844,  by  the  rivers 
entering  the  Sea  of  Aral. 


QUESTIONS.  421 


SYNCHRONISTIC   QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

How  long  after  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  was  Rarik's  power  in  Russia  established  ?    (P.  155.) 

Who  was  German  emperor  at  the  death  of  Jaroslaf  the  Great  (Glory  of  Kief),  1054  ? 
(P.  163.) 

How  long  is  this  date  before  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  ?    (P.  362.) 

What  century  ends  the  Crusades  ?    (P.  191.) 

With  what  century  begins  the  Mongol  rule  in  Europe  ?    (P.  169.) 

Of  what  territories  will  you  deprive  modem  Russia  to  understand  its  size  in  the  time  of 
Ivan  in.  and  before  his  conquests  ?~i.  e.,  enumerate  all  acquisitions  since  Ivan  HI. 

How  long  before  the  death  of  Ivan  III.  was  Charles  V.  bom  ?    (P.  228.) 

Who  was  Germanic  emperor  at  the  accession  of  Ivan  IV.  ?    (P.  239.) 

When  did  the  dynasty  of  Rurik  end  ?    (P.  415.) 

Who  was  English  sovereign  then  ?    (P.  379.) 

Who  was  Spanish  sovereign  ?    (P.  241.) 

What  Russian  Tzar  made  serfdom  general  ? 

Who  emancipated  the  serfs  ? 

Who  was  English  king  at  the  accession  of  Michael  Romanoff  ?    (P.  383.) 

Who  was  English  king  at  the  accession  of  Peter  the  Great?    (P.  387.) 

Who  was  French  king  at  this  time  ?    (P.  381.) 

What  general  European  war  was  waged  in  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  ?    (P.  854.) 

What  Prussian  king  was  contemporary  with  Catherine  11.  ?    (P.  259.) 


ARABS  AND  TURKS. 


THE    MOHAMMEDAN    ARABS. 

Until  the  age  of  Mohammed,  born  569,  the  Peninsula  of  Arabia  is 
known  to  history  mainly  through  the  spices  and  incense  which  it  exported 
from  the  earliest  times.  Although  relatively  unknown,  the  coasts  of  Arabia 
possessed  a  high  degree  of  civilization.  The  Bedouin  or  wandering  Arabs  of 
the  interior  desert  were  then,  as  now,  barbarian,  and  are  to  be  distinguished 
then,  as  now,  from  the  settled  and  commercial  Arabs. 

From  contact  with  Christians  and  Jews,  the  Arabs  gradually  became  su- 
perior to  their  original  paganism,  and  this  progress  was  formulated  and  made 
general  by  Mohammed,  a  self-styled  prophet. 

The  Mohammedan  era  is  calculated  from  the  year  a.  d.  622,  when  the 
prophet  was  driven  for  the  time  being  to  fly  from  Mecca  (the  "  Hegira"),  but 
also  found  the  faith  and  constancy  of  his  followers  equal  to  the  test  thus  im- 
posed on  them.     He  died  ten  years  later. 

His  caxdinal  doctrine  was  the  belief  in  one  God,  in  opposition  to  the  previous  Arab 
polytheism  ;  but  submission  to  the  will  of  God  was  conceived  by  him  and  by  his  followers  in  a 
way  which  led  to  stagnant  indiflference  to  the  evil  Christians  are  bidden  to  combat.  Many 
objectionable,  and  some  laudable  doctrines  and  teachings  were  advanced  by  this  man.  As  in 
all  other  human  religions,  this  one  also  exhibits  its  good  or  evil  aspect  according  to  the  individ- 
ual or  national  temperament  and  surroundings.  It  is  known  that  Mohammed  himself  was 
subject  to  epileptic  fits,  which  he  conceived  to  be  divinely  inspired  trances,  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  him  a  conscious  impostor.  His  teachings,  given  out  in  disjointed  and  frag- 
mentary utterances,  and  written  down  on  palm  leaves  and  pieces  of  bone  in  his  lifetime,  were 
collected  after  his  death  in  the  Koran. 

The  personality  and  self-confidence  of  Mohammed  inspired  his 
nation  with  a  zeal  for  its  new  faith  which  launched  it  on  the  most  remarkable 
religious  war  known  to  history.  All  nations  were  to  become  converts  or  be  put 
to  the  sword,  except  Jews  and  Christians,  "the  peoples  of  the  Book."  These, 
according  to  the  Koran,  were  to  be  allowed  life  and  liberty  if  they  paid  tribute. 


THE    MOHAMMEDAN    ARABS. 


423 


Egypt,  Syria,  and  North  Africa  were  wrested  from  the  Byzantine  Empire  about 
the  middle  of  the  7th  century  a.  d.  (p.  150,  and  map,  p.  154).  Spain  was  con- 
quered from  the  Visigoths  at  the  opening  of  the  8th  century.  Toward  the 
east  the  Mohammedan  conquests  reached  into  India. 

The  rulers  of  the  Mohammedan  world  were  called  Caliphs.  They 
combined  spiritual  and  temporal  authority  till  the  middle  of  the  10th  century, 
when  they  lost  their  temporal  power. 
The  first  four  successors  of  Moham- 
med were  Abu  Bekr  and  Omar,  his 
fathers-in-law,  and  Othman  and  Ali, 
sons-in-law  of  the  prophet.  The 
sons  of  Ali,  who  were  murdered, 
were  conceived  by  some  to  be  the 
next  legal  successors — hence  a  sect 
called  the  Shiites  (to  which  the  Per- 
sians have  always  belonged)  denying 
the  authority  of  the  later  Caliphs. 

The  Ommaiads.— The  ortho- 
dox Mohammedans  or  Sunnites, 
whose  leading  modern  representa- 
tives are  the  Turks,  acknowledged 
as  next  Caliph,  in  661,  Moawiyah,  founder  of  the  line  of  the  Ommaiads ;  seat 
at  Damascus. 

The  Abbasides.— The  Ommaiads  were  overthrown,  in  750,  by  Abbas, 
founder  of  the  Abbaside  Caliphs  ;  seat  at  Bagdad.  An  Ommaiad  named  Abder- 
rhaman,  who  escaped  to  Spain,  founded  there,  in  756,  an  independent  power — 
the  Caliphate  of  Cordova  (map,  p.  154). 

Various  independent  dynasties  rose  soon  after  in  various  parts  of  the 
Mohammedan  world,  paying  more  or  less  homage  to  the  Bagdad  Caliphs,  till 
these  were  overthrown  by  the  Mongols  in  1258  (see  contemporary  accounts  of 
the  Mongols  in  Russian  History), 

The  Arab  Civilization  had  reached  its  highest  pitch  in  the  centuries 
after  Mohammed.  Through  the  culture  and  literature  of  East-Rome,  of  which 
three  provinces — Syria,  Egypt  and  North  Africa — were  in  Arab  hands,  they 
rivaled  that  heir  of  ancient  Rome  in  material  civilization  and  in  knowledge. 

The  Turks. — In  the  time  of  Arabian  decay  which  preceded  the  Mongol 
desolation  of  western  Asia,  the  Turkish  tribes  of  the  steppes  east  of  the  Cas- 
pian, who  were  converts  to  Mohammedanism,  became  first  the  military  de- 
fenders and  then  the  rulers  of  the  Mohammedan  countries.    It  was  the  oppres- 


The  Mosque  of  Omar,  Jerusalem. 
{OnginaUy  a  Christian  Church  of  the  4th  Cent.) 


\ 


424  ARABS     AND     TURKS. 

sion  of  the  Christians  and  Christian  pilgrims  in  Syria  by  the  Turks  which  led 
!»  the  Crusades.  These  Turks  were  called  from  their  first  leader,  the  Seljuk 
Turks.  Their  most  important  State  was  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor  wrested  from 
the  Byzantine  Empire.  The  Crusaders  who  marched  by  way  of  Constantinople 
had  to  encounter  this  Sultanate  of  Iconium  (map,  p.  183)  before  reaching  Syria. 

SUMMARY   OF   DATES. 

Mohammedan  era .a.  d.  632 

Four  successors  of  the  Prophet  to "     661 

Ommaiad  Caliphs  (Damascus)  to "     750 

Abbaside  Caliphs  (Bagdad)  to "  1358 

QUESTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

How  far  did  the  Arabs  extend  their  conquests  on  the  east  ? 
How  far  on  the  west  ? 

What  Byzantine  provinces  were  included  in  these  conquests  ? 

What  people— converts  to  Mohammedanism— finally  replaced  the  Arabs  as  military  rulers  in 
the  eastern  countries  ? 

What  invasion  overthrew  the  Abbaside  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  ? 

What  Anglo-Saxon  State  was  ascendant  in  the  time  of  Mohammed  ? 

How  long  before  622  did  Roman  missionaries  land  in  Kent  ? 

What  battle  in  732  prevented  the  Mohammedans  from  conquering  western  Europe  f   (P.  150.) 

What  Abbaside  Caliph  was  contemporary  of  Charlemagne  ?    (P.  155.) 

What  Byzantine  province  was  mainly  conquered  by  the  Seljuk  Turks  ? 

What  caused  the  Crusades  ?    (P.  183.) 


THE    OTTOMAN    TURKS. 

The  Tribe  of  Othman. — The  Turks  now  known  to  us  in  Turkey  are  not 
the  Seljuk  Turks.  The  Sultan  of  Iconium  took  into  his  service,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  13th  century,  a  band  of  440  Turkish  horsemen,  who  had  wandered 
with  their  families,  first  from  Turkestan  east  of  the  Caspian  to  the  Euphrates 
and  then  into  Asia  Minor.  They  were  commanded  by  Ertoghrul.  His  son  0th 
man  gives  the  name  to  the  "Ottoman"  Turks  of  modern  times.  From  the 
Seljuks  was  borrowed  their  symbol,  the  Crescent. 

Ertoghrul  and  Othman  were  made  lords  of  a  territory  in  Northwest 
Asia  Minor,  bordering  the  remnant  of  the  Byzantine  territory.  By  the  death  of 
the  last  Sultan  of  Iconium,  Othman  became  the  most  important  Turkish  chief 
of  Asia  Minor,  after  1307,  and  reigned  till  1326.    He  was  buried  at  Brussa,  con- 


THE    OTTOMAN    TURKS.  425 

quered  from  the  Byzantine  Empire  in  the  year  of  his  death.  His  tomb  existed 
as  a  noted  shrine  of  the  Turks  till  our  own  time,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire. 
His  sabre  is  still  used  in  investing  a  new  Sultan. 

Othman's  son  Orchan  reigned  from  1326  to  1359.  By  1336  his  power 
was  firmly  established  over  all  Northwest  Asia  Minor,  from  which  the  East- 
Romans  were  by  this  time  expelled,  and  in  1356  the  Turks  set  foot  in  Europe 
on  the  Thracian  Chersonese.  They  came  as  allies  of  a  claimant  of  the  Byzan- 
tine throne  and  remained  as  allies  of  the  Byzantine  Emperor,  making  constant 
headway  by  the  feuds  and  divisions  in  his  State.  Under  Orchan  were  organized 
the  Janissaries,  the  first  standing  army  known  to  Europe.  They  were  recruited 
by  a  forced  annual  levy  of  one  thousand  Christian  children,  who  were  then 
educated  as  Mohammedans.     This  levy  was  continued  annually  till  1673. 

Anmrath  I.  crossed  the  Hellespont  in  1360,  one  year  after  his  accession, 
took  Adrianople  in  1361,  defeated  a  Christian  army  of  Servians,  Bulgarians  and 
crusading  allies  on  the  river  Maritza,  near  Adrianople,  in  1363,  subdued  the 
Servians  (Slavonians,  Greek  Church)  after  1376 ;  crossed  the  Balkans  in  1389, 
and  perished  in  the  Turkish  victory  on  the  plain  of  Kossova,  in  Servia,  in 
that  year.  Bulgaria  and  Wallachia  were  made  Turkish  tributaries  as  result  of 
this  victory.  Bulgaria  was  peopled  by  Slavonian  Greek  Christians.  Like 
Servia,  it  was  at  times  included  under  Byzantine  rule,  at  times  indajoendent — 
and  in  this  latter  condition  when  conquered  by  the  Turks ;  for  the  Byzantine 
Empire  had  begun  to  fall  in  pieces  before  the  Turkish  conquest. 

Bajazet  I.  succeeded  his  father.  The  flower  of  French  and  Hungarian 
chivalry  was  destroyed  by  him  in  the  famous  battle  of  Nikopolis  on  the  Danube 
in  1396,  and  Greece  was  then  made  Turkish  to  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  (Athens, 
Turkish,  1397). 

The  battle  of  Nikopolis  seemed  to  lay  Christendom  open  to  the  Turks,  but 
the  Mongol  desolators  of  Asia  saved  Europe.  Bitter  enemies  of  the  Turks,  the 
Mongols  invaded  Asia  Minor  under  Timur-lenk  (Tamerlane),  whose  empire 
reached  from  China  to  Central  Russia.  They  defeated  Bajazet  I.  and  made  him 
prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Angora,  1402.  Timur  retired  from  Asia  Minor  to  attack 
China,  and  died  on  the  march.  After  a  family  feud  lasting  till  1413,  the  Turks 
once  more,  under  Mahomet  I.,  began  to  gather  power. 

His  successor  was  Amurath  II.,  1421-1451,  who  crossed  the  Bos- 
phorus,  in  1440,  by  Genoese  assistance,  and  defeated  the  Hungarian  hero  Hun- 
yades  at  Varna  in  1444.  The  Hungarian  Hunyades  and  the  Albanian  Scander- 
beg  performed  prodigies  of  valor  against  the  Turks,  and  to  their  efforts  is 
mainly  owing  the  preservation  of  Italy  and  western  Europe  from  invasion. 

The  next  Sultan  w^iS  Maliomet  II.  j  1451-1481.    He  toofe  Copstapti- 


4^ 


ARABS    AND    T.URKS. 


nople  in  1453  (p.  13'j),  and  proceeded  then  to  overthrow  the  last  remnants  of 
Byzantine  rule  in  the  Peloponnesus  and  on  the  Black  Sea,  His  advance  on 
western  Europe  was  checked  at  Belgrade,  in  1456, 
by  the  heroic  efforts  of  St.  John  Capistran,  a  Fran- 
ciscan monk. 

A  feud  with  the  Genoese  resulted  in  the  Turk- 
ish conquest  of  Kaffa  and  the  Crimea,  1475  (p.  237). 
An  attack  on  Rhodes  failed  in  1480,  but  in 
that  year  the  Italian  city  of  Otranto,  the  key  of 
Italy,  was  captured  by  the  Turks.  Mahomet  II. 
had  threatened  to  feed  his  horse  on  the  altar  of 
(the  old)  St.  Peter's  Church,  but  his  death  spared 
Italy  from  invasion, 

Bajazet  II.,  1481-1512,  wasted  his  forces  in  feud 
with  his  own  brother  and  son. 

Selim  I.,  1512-1520,  is  renowned  for  the  ad- 
dition  of  Northern  Mesopotamia,  of  Syria,  and 
of  Egypt  to  the  Turkish  states.  These  countries 
were  conquered  from  the  Mohammedan  Mame- 
lukes, a  cavalry  force  recruited  from  slaves,  whose 
chiefs  had  ruled  Egypt  since  1204.  The  Mame- 
lukes had  protected  the  successors  of  the  Caliphs 
of  Bagdad ;  and  the  power  of  the  Caliph,  as  head  of  the  Mohammedan  world, 
was  now  transferred  to  the  Turkish  Sultan. 
To  him  were  transferred,  also,  the  sword, 
mantle,  and  banner  of  the  prophet  Moham- 
med, which  are  still  preserved  at  Constanti- 
nople. The  banner  is  borne  before  the  army 
on  occasions  of  urgent  peril. 

Solyman  the  Great,  1520-1666,  raised 
Turkey  to  its  highest  power.  He  conquered, 
from  Persia,  Bagdad  on  the  Tigris,  which  has 
ever  since  been  Turkish,  and  received  the  allegi- 
ance of  the  Mohammedan  states  of  North  Africa 
— viz!,  Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli — thus  almost 
making  the  Mediterranean  into  a  Turkish  lake. 
Solyman  took  Rhodes  from  the  Knights  of 
St.  John  in  1522.  '    ~ 

In  1526  he  defeated  the  Hungarians  in  the  battle  of  Mohacz,  and  in  1529 


St.  John  Capistrau. 
{From  a  'portrait  of  his  time.) 


THE    OTTOMAN     TURKS. 


427 


besieged  Vienna.    The  city  was  saved,  but  nearly  all  Hung^ary  became  Turkish 
(till  1699).     In  the  reign  of  Solyman  the  Turkish  artillery  was  the  best  in 
Europe,   and   his   army  was 
the    most  dreaded,    but    the 
Turkish  power  declined  from 
his  time.    (See  p.  333.) 

SeUm  II.,  1566-1574, 
degraded  his  reign  by  a  de- 
gree of  vicious  self-indulgence 
remarkable  even  in  a  Turkish 
Sultan. 

Cyprus  was  taken  from 
the  Venetians  in  1571,  but 
this  loss  was  avenged  in  the 
same  year  by  the  famous 
naval  victory  of  Lepanto,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  The 
Christian  fleet  was  organized 
by  Pope  Pius  V.,  the  Vene- 
tians, and  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
and  was  commanded  by  Don 
John  of  Austria  (half  brother  of  Philip  II 


Papal  Galley.    Time  of  the  Battle  of  Lepanto. 


The  fame  of  the  battle  of  Lepanto 
rests  on  the  almost  total  destruction  of  the  dreaded 
Turkish  fleet  by  an  inferior  force,  and  on  the  confi- 
dence which  this  victory  gave  Christendom  to  continue 
its  struggle  with  the  infidels.  Until  this  time  all  Med- 
iterranean coasts  were  scourged  by  the  Turkish  cor- 
sairs, who  carried  off  thousands  of  Christians  to  slav- 
ery (ten  thousand  were  liberated  from  Turkish  galleys 
at  Lepanto). 

Amurath  III.  began  the  practice  of  selling  ofl&cial 
positions,  and  the  Turkish  state  consequently  in  his 
time  already  reached  that  degradation  of  official  cor- 
ruption and  cruel  oppression  which  still  continues. 


Shield  presented  Don 
John  of  Austria  by 
Pope  Pius  V. 


The  first  half  of  the  17th  century,  which  witnessed  the  decay  of  Turkey,  was  also 
the  time  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Thus  Europe  could  not  profit  by  Turkish  weakness. 
After  1656,  a  succession  of  vigorous  viziers  somewhat  restored  order  and  strength,  and  in 
1663  war  was  declared  on  Austria  in  connection  with  a  revolt  in  Austrian  Hungary.  An 
iQunense  Turkish  anny  marched  on  Vienna,  and  reached  the  Kaab,  but  was  defeated  at  St. 


428  ARABS    AND    TURKS. 

Gotthard  by  MontecucuUi,  a  noted  Italian  general  in  Austrian  service.  This  victory  demon- 
strated that  European  discipline  and  military  science  were  now  far  above  the  Turkish.  A 
truce  with  Austria  followed,  during  which  Poland  and  Russia  were  at  war  with  Turkey.  The 
Polish  general,  Sobieski,  won  brilliant  victories  in  this  war,  which  prepared  him  for  the  glorious 
triumph  of  1683  (p.  351). 

The  Turks  had  encamped  around  Vienna  with  an  army  numbering  altogether  nearly  a 
million  men.  The  city  was  defended  by  11,000  soldiers.  Sobieski,  with  70,000  men,  came  to 
the  rescue,  and  by  brilliant  generalship  utterly  routed  the  last  Turkish  army  which  seriously 
threatened  to  overpower  Christendom. 

Meantime,  in  1G69,  Crete  (Venetian  since  the  Fourth  Crusade)  was  won  by  the  Turks,  but 
the  Venetians  conquered  the  Peloponnesus.  A  succession  of  Austrian  victories,  won  by  Prince 
Eugene,  carried  the  Austrians  to  the  Danube,  and  resulted  in  the  Peace  of  Carlowitz,  1699,  by 
which  all  Hungary  was  regained  (p.  251). 

Austria  had  made  peace  in  anticipation  of  the  Spanish  Succession  War  (p.  254),  but  in 
alliance  with  Venice  resumed  hostilities  after  1715. 

The  Peace  of  Passarowitz,  in  1718,  gave  back  the  Peloponnesus  to  Turkey,  but  carried 
Austria  below  the  Danube.  This  acquisition  was  abandoned  in  1739  by  the  Peace  of  Belgrade, 
ending  a  three  years'  war  in  which  Austrian  over  self-confidence  occasioned  terrible  reverses. 

Meantime  Russia  was  replacing  Austria  as  the  formidable  rival  of  the  Turks. 
Between  the  Turkish  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  and  the  Cossacks  of  Southern  Russia  was  waged  a 
constant  warfare  which  the  respective  authorities  sometimes  could  not  check  and  sometimes 
would  not.  (In  1570  an  army  of  Crimean  Tartars  had  even  sacked  Moscow.)  When,  with  the 
accession  of  Peter  the  Great,  the  policy  of  extending  Russia  to  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas  began, 
his  first  undertaking  was  an  expedition,  in  1695,  against  Azof,  the  port  controlling  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Don.  This  conquest  was  abandoned  after  his  disastrous  campaign  of  1711  on  the 
Pruth  (p.  416). 

In  the  war  just  mentioned  as  closed  by  the  Peace  of  Belgrade,  Russia  had  taken  active  and 
successful  share,  but  was  obliged  to  abandon  her  conquests  by  the  disasters  of  Austria.  But 
the  war  between  Turkey  and  Catharine  II.,  opened  1768,  resulted  in  the  Russian  acquisition  of 
the  Crimea,  thus  securing  the  Don.  Important  ports  were  acquired  here  by  the  Peace  of  Kai- 
nardji  in  1774,  and  the  entire  occupation  took  place  after  1783.  A  second  war  under  Cath- 
arine II.  carried  Russia  to  the  Dniester,  thus  securing  the  navigation  of  the  important  river 
Dnieper.    (Peace  of  Jassy,  1792,  p.  418.) 

Times  of  the  French  Revolution.— In  the  complications  and  rapid  changes  of  alliance 
among  European  states  after  the  French  Revolution  and  during  Bonaparte's  time,  Turkey 
was  entirely  controlled  by  foreign  countries,  to  whose  jealousies  she  owes  her  later  ex- 
istence. 

Beside  the  losses  of  territory  so  far  noted,  Servia  obtained  a  position  of  semi- 
independence  after  1804,  since  transformed  into  entire  independence,  1878.  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia  were  governed  by  elective  Hospodars  subject  to  Russian  approval  after  Catharine  II., 
and  only  paid  tribute  to  Turkey.  Russia  lost  her  protectorate  over  these  provinces  by  the 
Crimean  war.  They  were  united  as  "Roumania"  in  1859,  and  have  been  since  governed  by  a 
prince  of  the  Prussian  House  of  HohenzoUern.  Since  1878  they  are  no  longer  tributary  to 
Turkey.  The  Roumanians  claim  descent  (as  their  name  implies)  from  Roman  soldier  colonists 
of  the  time  of  Trajan  (p.  123).  . 

The  Greeks  revolted  against  Turkey  in  1830.  Russia,  France  and  England  united  to  assist 
them,  and  the  entire  Turkish  fleet  was  destroyed  at  Navarino,  west  coast  Peloponnesus,  1827. 


THE    OTTOMAN    TURKS.  429 

Greek  freedom  was  secured  by  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829  (p.  29).  Since  this  time  Greece 
is  an  independent  kingdom,  recently  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Thessaly. 

Egypt  through  the  18th  century  was  but  loosely  connected  with  Turkey.  Under  the  rule 
of  Mehemet  Ali,  in  the  early  19th  century,  it  threatened  not  only  to  sever  connection  with 
Turkey,  but  to  conquer  from  her  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  In  1841  Egypt  was  made  a  hereditary 
possession  of  Mehemet  All's  family,  subject  only  to  tribute  and  to  furnishing  a  war  contingent 
to  the  Sultan. 

The  Crimean  War  (p.  298)  gave  Turkey  a  new  lease  of  life  by  depriving  Russia  for  a 
time  of  naval  ascendency  in  the  Black  Sea. 

But  atrocious  massacres  in  Bulgaria  by  Turkish  Irregulars,  1876,  so  roused  the 
sympathies  of  other  Slavonians  and  of  members  of  the  Greek  Church,  that  first  Servia,  then 
Russia  declared  war.  The  Russian  army  reached  Constantinople,  but  was  forbidden  by  Great 
Britain  to  occupy  the  city,  and  Rnssia  was  too  exhausted  to  stand  a  new  war  with  a  fresh  enemy. 

The  Treaty  of  Berlin,  1878,  gave  Russia  only  a  slight  increase  of  territory  in  Armenia 
(Kars  and  Batoum).  Turkey  in  Europe  was  much  diminished.  Bulgaria,  between  the  Balkans 
and  Danube,  was  lost  entirely.  Eastern  Roumelia,  south  of  the  Balkans,  was  made  a  semi- 
independent  principality,  subject  to  Turkish  tribute  and  supervision.  Bosnia  was  occupied  by 
Austria.  According  to  a  secret  clause  of  the  Berlin  treaty,  Cyprus  was  occupied  by  Great 
Britain.    Servia  and  Roumania  were  made  independent,  as  noted  on  preceding  page. 

The  little  mountaineer  State  of  Montenegro,  on  the  Adriatic,  has  never  been 
conquered  by  Turkish  troops.  It  is  a  centre  of  constant  active  or  smouldering  guerilla  war 
against  them. 

The  Herzegovina  is  the  mountain  district  (a  portion  of  Bosnia)  above  Montenegro, 
nominally  subject  to  Turkey,  in  which  began  the  revolt  which  extended  to  Servia  and  Rou- 
mania after  the  Bulgarian  massacres  just  mentioned  (map,  p.  300). 


GENERAL  ASPECTS   OF   LATER  TURKISH    HISTORY. 

An  inxportant  source  of  decay  in  the  Turkish  State,  the  sale  of  offices  by  the  Sultan 
to  recruit  his  private  purse,  has  been  mentioned.  Another  was  the  insubordination  of- the 
Janissaries  who,  after  1600,  dethroned,  assassinated,  or  terrorized  over  the  Sultans  at  frequent 
intervals.    The  Janissaries  were  suppressed  by  Mahmoud  II.  in  1826,  after  a  terrible  struggle. 

Another  cause  of  decay  was  the  habit,  after  1600,  of  secluding  the  children  of  the 
Sultan  in  the  palace  instead  of  giving  them  posts  of  trust  in  the  lifetime  of  the  sovereign. 
This  measure,  intended  to  prevent  family  feuds,  made  the  sovereign  effeminate  or  imbecile, 
and  threw  all  active  part  in  the  government  into  the  hands  of  a  Grand  Vizier. 

The  countries  held  "by  the  Turks  in  Europe  were  all  inhabited  originally  by 
Christian  populations.  There  are  Armenian  Christians  in  Asia  Minor,  Maronite  Christians  in 
Syria,  and  Kopts  in  Egypt.  Besides  the  large  numbers  of  Christians  remaining  in  Asiatic 
Turkey  they  still  form  in  European  Turkey  four-fifths  of  the  population.  These  Christians  in 
Europe— aside  from  the  Greeks,  of  whom  there  are  many  in  Turkey  besides  those  in  Greece— are 
nearly  all  Slavonians,  and  thus  doubly  allied,  by  blood  and  by  religious  sympathies,  with  Russia. 
Hence  constant  revolts  and  disturbances,  tending  to  draw  this  country  into  war  with  Turkey. 
On  the  other  hand,  Austria  discountenances  Russian  extension  on  the  side  of  European  Turkey, 
as  tending  to  endanger  her  control  of  the  mouths  of  the  Danube.  England  objects  to  Russian 
control  of  Constantinople,  as  threatening  to  cripple  her  own  hold  on  Asiatic  commerce,    Ger- 


430  ARABS    AND    TURKS. 

many  does  not  wish  to  see  Russia  more  powerful  in  Europe.  Thus  an  entirely  bankrupt  and 
corrupt  government  continues  to  exist.  Countries  which  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  and 
Greeks,  of  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  were  covered  with  prosperous  and  powerful  cities, 
and  still  of  the  highest  possibilities  in  the  way  of  civilization,  are  desolate  and  depopulated. 

The  miserable  condition  of  Turkish  countries,  aside  from  other  causes  of  decay, 
results  from  a  system  of  tax-farming  by  which  contractors,  for  a  certain  sum  furnished  the 
Sultan,  have  unlimited  power  of  oppression  and  extortion  over  the  provinces.  Land  is  uncul- 
tivated and  trade  idle,  because  wealth  is  only  a  summons  for  the  extortions  of  the  tax-collectors. 

The  Turks  themselves  are  a  naturally  intelligent  and  well-disposed  people,  but  corrupted  by 
European  and  Eastern  vices  and  mixed  with  a  multitude  of  renegades  who  in  all  centuries  have 
been  the  most  depraved  and  vicious  of  their  officials.  Moreover,  they  are  unfitted  by  religion 
and  social  habits  to  assimilate  and  adopt  those  features  of  European  civilization  which  would 
bring  them  into  sympathy  with  the  subject  European  populations. 

The  Turkish  langruagre  is  Turanian  (p.  32),  but  mixed  with  Arabic.  In  literature  and 
poetry  the  Persians  have  served  as  their  models. 

Tobacco,  although  we  cannot  now  imagine  a  Turk  without  his  pipe,  was  first  used  after 
1604.    Coffee  first  appeared  in  Constantinople  in  the  reign  of  Solyman  the  Great. 

The  character  of  Turkish  government  was  doubtless  superior  in  its  prime  to  many 
other  eastern  despotisms,  but  it  was  usual,  until  1600,  for  the  new  Sultan  to  put  to  death  his 
brothers  in  order  to  forestall  their  rivalry.  One  of  the  Sultans  thus  killed  nineteen  brothers. 
The  punishment  of  death  was  inflicted  by  many  Sultans  for  the  slightest  offences.  A  Sultan 
of  the  17th  century  put  to  death  one  hundred  thousand  persons.  A  Grand  Vizier  of  the  17th 
century,  renowned  for  his  justice,  put  to  death  thirty-six  thousand  persons  in  five  years.  It 
is  true  that  these  executions  were  partly  caUed  for  by  the  crimes  and  insubordinate  violence  of 
the  Janissaries,  but  this  does  not  better  our  conception  of  the  Turkish  State.  In  the  time  of 
Bonaparte  it  was  still  usual  for  Turkish  soldiers  to  disperse  after,  or  even  before,  victory,  to 
collect  the  heads  of  their  slain  enemies. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

What  nations  were  engaged  in  the  wars  closed  by  the  varioas  treaties  mentioned  in  the 
summary  on  the  next  page  ? 

What  changes  of  territory  were  involved  in  each  one  of  these  treaties  ? 

What  was  the  leading  feature  of  French  and  English  history  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of 
NikopoUs?    (P.  198.) 

From  what  time  do  you  date  the  Byzantine  Empire,  overthrown  in  1453  ? 

Who  married  the  Byzantine  heiress  soon  after  ?    (P.  415.) 

Mention  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  contemporary  with  Solyman  the  Great  ?    (P.  239.) 

What  territory  was  gained  by  the  Turkish  victory  of  Mohacz  ?  (P.  233.)  When  lost  ? 
(P.  428.)    By  what  treaty? 

What  conquest  roused  Christendom  to  the  triumph  at  Lepanto  ?    (P.  427.) 

What  was  the  government  of  Cyprus  at  this  time  ?    (P.  427.) 

When  did  the  Turks  lose  Cyprus  ?    (P.  429.) 

Who  was  king  of  France  when  Sobieski  defeated  the  Turks  f 

What  gains  were  made  by  Russia  at  the  expense  of  Turkey  in  the  18th  century  f    (P.  418.) 

What  territories  has  Turkey  lost  in  the  19th  century  f    (Pp.  428,  429.) 


^THE    OTTOMAN    TURKS.  431 


SUMMARY  OF  TURKISH    HISTORY. 

Otiiinan  in  Asia  Minor  after A.  D.  1300^ 

Turks  first  landing  in  Europe  ;  reign  of  Orchan "    1356  ' 


16tli  Cent. 


Amuratli  I.  took  Adrianople "  1361  )■  14tli  Cent. 

He  died  in  the  victory  of  Korsova "  1389  I 

Bajazet  I. ;  victory  of  Nikopolis •'  1396 J 

Bajazet  I.  ;  defeat  of  Angora **  1402 \ 

Mahomet  II.  took  Constantinople "  1453  [•  15th  Cent. 

"     the  Crimea "  1475 ' 

Selim  I.  conquered  Syria  and  Egypt "  1517- 

Solyman  I.  the  Great  took  Rhodes "  1523 

"       "  "       victory  of  Mohacz "  1526 

"       "  "       before  Vienna * '  1529 

Selim  II.  conquered  Cyprus  ;  was  defeated  at  Lepanto. . .  "  1571 

Turkish  defeat  on  the  Raab "  1664  ^ 

Turks  defeated  before  Vienna  by  Sobieski "  1683  [  17th  Cent. 

Peace  of  Carlowitz *'  1699 ' 

Peace  of  Passarowitz "  1718' 

Peace  of  Belgrade "  1739 

Peace  of  Kainardji *'  1774 

Peace  of  Jassy "  1793  J 

Revolt  of  Servia  after "  1804 

Independence  of  Greece  after "  1829 

Semi-independence  of  Egypt  after "  1841 

Crimean  War  ends  by  the  Peace  of  Paris "  1856 

Semi-independence  of  Roumania  after "  1859 

Peace  of  Berlin.    (Conditions?) "  1878. 

Map  Study.— Geographically  the  Ottoman  Turkish  countries  were  all  portions  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  and  Turkish  history  relates  eiflher  to  Turkish  assimilation  or  to  Turkish 
debasement  of  Byzantine  civilization,  therefore  the  sequence  of  maps  for  the  Byzantine 
Empire  should  be  examined.  Its  connection  and  identity  with  the  Roman  Empire  should 
be  also  observed.  See  pp.  116,  140,  154,  156,  182,  200,  228.  See  maps  of  European  Turkey  at 
pp.  296,  298,  and  300.  At  p.  298  are  best  indicated  the  dimensions  of  Bosnia,  Servia,  Wallachia, 
and  Moldavia.  At  p.  300  see  Montenegro.  Localities  are  mentioned  in  the  order  ef  refer- 
ence. Brusa,  Adrianople,  p.  296;  Kossova,  in  Servia;  Nikopolis,  p.  298;  Angora,  in  Central 
Asia  Minor;  Varna,  p.  296;  Belgrade,  p.  256;  Constantinople,  p.  296;  Kaffa  and  the  Crimea, 
p.  296,  section  map  ;  Otranto,  see  Tarent,  p.  300  ;  Mohacz,  p.  228;  Lepanto,  Gulf  of  Corinth  ; 
Carlowitz,  north  of  and  near  Belgrade  ;  Passarowitz,  p.  256  ;  Jassy,  p.  296 ;  Navarino,  p.  296. 


M8th  Cent. 


i.l9th  Cent. 


I  TOM  MURRAY 
DELfiSALlEmSTiTure 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

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